Friday, November 13, 2009

80) China - Africa cooperation: Forum declaration and Plan of Action

Declaration of Sharm El Sheikh of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation
November 12, 2009

We, the ministers of foreign affairs and ministers in charge of economic cooperation of the People’s Republic of China and 49 African countries, met in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt from 8 to 9 November 2009 for the 4th Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation(FOCAC).

We applaud the convening of the 4th Ministerial Conference of FOCAC, under the leadership of H.E. Hosny Mobarak, President of the Arab Republic of Egypt and H.E. Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, and in the presence of Their Excellences the Heads of State and Government and leaders of 17 African countries.

For the purpose of “deepening the new type of China-Africa Strategic Partnership for sustainable development”, we, on the occasion of the third anniversary of the Beijing Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, reviewed with satisfaction the implementation of the follow-up actions to the Beijing Summit of the Forum, and agreed that the set goals had been accomplished. We also discussed the ways and means to further deepen China-Africa relations under new circumstances.

We are pleased to note that, thanks to joint efforts of the two sides, the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation has grown in strength and showed great vigor and vitality over the past nine years since its inception. It is particularly noteworthy that a new type of strategic partnership between China and Africa featuring political equality and mutual trust, economic win-win cooperation and cultural exchanges was established at the successful Beijing Summit of the Forum, making it a milestone in the history of China-Africa relations.

We solemnly reiterate the spirit of the Beijing Summit of the Forum and believed that the principles it set out will provide long-term guidance for the growth of China-Africa relations and steer the relations forward.

We hold that the international situation, while on the whole being stable, is complex and volatile. The world is still gripped by the economic recession triggered by the global financial crisis. Global concerns, represented by food security, the energy issue, climate change, and the need to prevent and control major diseases, are getting more acute, and destabilizing factors and uncertainties are notably on the rise in the international political, economic and other fields. Climate change in particular is having a devastating effect on many countries and regions across the world and urgently requires solutions.

The effect of the financial crisis on developing countries is still spreading. In particular, the grave consequences of the crisis on the African economies, fragile as they are, may be further felt, making it more difficult for African countries to meet the UN Millennium Development Goals.

We believe that the international community particularly developed countries should pay special attention to the negative impact of the crisis on developing countries, particularly African countries, and further efforts should be made in order to mitigate those effects. Therefore, effective measures should be implemented by the developed countries, in order to fulfill their commitments on aid, debt relief, promoting and increasing investment, opening up and accessing market, and assisting developing countries to promote economic growth in order to achieve sustainable development. In this context, we call on the developed countries to further assist African countries to achieve the UN Millennium Development Goals. In particular, we recommend that specific actions be taken in favour of island, least developed and landlocked states.

We call on all countries to, as an effective response to the current challenges and threats, act under the principles of multilateralism and democracy in international relations to increase communications, respect and support each other, make the international order more just and equitable, and promote harmonious development and common prosperity of the world.

We reaffirm the need for strengthening the role of the United Nations through inter alia, its reform and, as a matter of priority, increasing the representation of African countries in the Security Council and other UN agencies.

We also express our appreciation for the Chinese support to the African just and fair causes in the international fora, particularly in the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations.

We call for reform of the international financial system to ensure its development in a fair, just, inclusive and orderly manner, and for increasing the representation and voice of developing countries therein.

We oppose protectionism in all its forms, and stand to uphold an open and free trade and investment environment.

We will continue to advance the Doha Round of trade negotiations on the basis of observing the negotiation mandate, sticking to the Development Agenda and respecting the existing outcomes, and call for a successful conclusion of these negotiations in 2010 with the attainment of the development goals and the reflection of the interests and concerns of developing countries, including African countries, in the outcome.

We underline in particular African countries’ urgent need for stronger capacity to adapt to climate change and support their legitimate right in combating climate change.

The African countries are greatly encouraged by China’s sustained, steady and fast economic growth, appreciate the significant actions taken by China in response to the financial crisis, and believe that these actions have not only contributed to stabilizing the world economy but also helped the African economy towards achieving recovery and growth.

China applauds Africa’s endeavor and achievement in strengthening governance, resolving regional conflicts, advancing poverty relief and development, and speeding up the integration process.

China is concerned with the difficulties Africa has encountered as a result of the global financial crisis and believes that the world should not overlook the issue of development while tackling the crisis.

China reaffirms its support for African countries in their efforts to strengthen themselves through unity and independently resolve Africa’s problems. It appreciates the positive role of African countries, the African Union (AU) and other regional and sub-regional organizations in this regard, and supports African countries in the process of African regional integration and development being conducted under the African Union, the “New Partnership for Africa’s Development” (NEPAD), and the Regional Economic Communities.

The two sides hold that the decades-long cooperation between China and Africa has produced fruitful results and delivered considerable benefits to their peoples. It is a good example of South-South cooperation. To further deepen the new type of China-Africa strategic partnership of political equality and mutual trust, economic win-win cooperation and cultural exchanges under the new circumstances, we will:

— Make the most of their consultation mechanisms at various levels and through multiple channels to strengthen strategic dialogue, expand common ground and deepen cooperation in multilateral institutions, so as to uphold the common interests of developing countries.

— Increase high-level visits, enhance political mutual trust and strengthen communication and coordination between China and Africa on major issues.

— Maintain unity and mutual support to jointly tackle the challenges brought by the global financial crisis and make sure that Africa’s endeavor to achieve the Millennium Development Goals will not be reversed.

— Expand mutual benefit and upgrade the level of China-Africa practical cooperation. The two sides will encourage and promote two-way trade and investment, diversify ways of cooperation, and strengthen collaborative efforts in such priority areas as poverty relief, environmental protection, human resources training and capacity-building, and information and communications technologies. In particular, specific attention is needed on the critical sectors of infrastructure, agriculture and food security.

— Broaden exchanges and deepen people-to-people and cultural cooperation. Efforts will be made to promote exchanges in culture, education, science and technology, medical and health care, sports, tourism and other fields, and forge closer ties among the young people, women, non-governmental organizations, media organizations and academic institutions of the two sides with a view to enhancing mutual understanding and friendship between the Chinese and African peoples.

— Strengthen coordination and work together to enhance the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation and promote its sustainable development. In light of the needs of the two sides and changed circumstances, China and Africa will steadily improve the mechanisms of the Forum, enrich its contents, identify reasonable targets, make the best use of the leading role of the Forum in driving forward China-Africa relations, and ensure successful implementation of the follow-up actions to the Forum.

— China pledges to work within its ability to further scale up aid to Africa, cut and cancel debt owed by African countries, expand investment in Africa, further open China’s market and strengthen practical cooperation with Africa.

— African countries welcome China’s commitments and expressed readiness to enhance coordination and experience-sharing with China and work to ease the adverse impact of the financial crisis on the African economy.

— The African countries reiterate their commitment to the one China policy and support for China’s peaceful reunification.

We have, in the spirit of this Declaration, formulated and adopted the Sharm El Sheikh Action Plan of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (2010-2012).

We express our congratulations on the fruitful results and great success of the Conference.

FORUM ON CHINA-AFRICA COOPERATION SHARM EL SHEIKH ACTION PLAN (2010-2012)

1. PREAMBLE
1.1 Ministers in charge of foreign affairs and economic cooperation from China and 49 African countries (hereinafter referred to as “the two sides”) met in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, on 8-9 November 2009 for the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC).

1.2 The two sides spoke highly of the FOCAC Beijing Summit and the Third Ministerial Conference held in Beijing in November 2006, recognizing that the new type of China-Africa strategic partnership featuring political equality and mutual trust, economic win-win cooperation and cultural exchanges, which was defined at the historic summit, opened broad prospects for deepening China-Africa cooperation, and set an example of South-South cooperation.

1.3 The two sides reviewed with satisfaction the implementation of the follow-up actions in the three years after the Beijing Summit, and were generally pleased with the comprehensive and effective implementation of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Beijing Action Plan (2007-2009) adopted at the Beijing Summit. They reiterated their firm goal of further developing the new type of China-Africa strategic partnership.

1.4 In keeping with the purposes of deepening the new type of China-Africa strategic partnership to seek sustainable development, and in order to implement the outcomes of the conference and chart the course for cooperation in all fields in the next three years, the two sides jointly worked out and adopted this Action Plan.

2. POLITICAL AFFAIRS, AND REGIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY
2.1 High-level Exchanges
The two sides noted that since the FOCAC Beijing Summit, there have been more frequent exchanges of visits and meetings on multilateral occasions between leaders of the two sides. The two sides agreed to maintain the momentum of high-level exchanges with a view to increasing mutual understanding and friendship, and deepening mutual trust and cooperation.

2.2 Dialogues and Communication in Various Forms
2.2.1 Recognizing the importance of increasingly diverse dialogue mechanisms to the deepening of the new type of China-Africa strategic partnership, the two sides resolved to give full play to the existing mechanisms, such as the bilateral commissions, strategic dialogues, foreign ministries’ political consultations, and joint/mixed commissions on economic and trade cooperation, so as to enhance planning and guidance for the relations between the two sides.

2.2.2 The two sides appreciated the smooth launch of the mechanism of regular political dialogue between foreign ministers of the two sides set up at the Beijing Summit and the success of its first round. The two sides agreed to hold, under this mechanism, the second round in 2010 on the sidelines of the United Nations General Assembly.

2.3 Contacts Between Political Parties, Legislatures and Local Governments
2.3.1 The two sides will further strengthen exchanges between political parties and enhance experience sharing on governance.
2.3.2 The two sides will continue to expand friendly contacts between the National People’s Congress of China and parliaments of African countries as well as the Pan-African Parliament to promote mutual understanding and deepen their relations.
2.3.3 The two sides noted that increasingly active local exchanges have become an integral part of China-Africa relations. They resolved to further promote exchanges and cooperation between governments at provincial and other local levels and to actively support twinning arrangements between the two sides.

2.4 Consular and Judicial Cooperation
2.4.1 Recognizing the need to strengthen personnel exchanges, the two sides agreed to increase cooperation in handling consular cases concerning their citizens in a proper and timely manner.
2.4.2 The two sides agreed to further promote exchanges and cooperation between their respective judiciaries and law enforcement departments, and to jointly improve the capability to prevent, investigate and combat crimes. The two sides also agreed to intensify cooperation between their immigration authorities to resolve the issue of illegal migration through consultation.
2.4.3 Noting the importance of legal exchanges, the two sides agreed to hold a FOCAC Legal Forum at an appropriate time.
2.5 Cooperation Between China and the African Union and Sub-regional Organizations in Africa
2.5.1 The two sides applauded the important contributions made by the African Union (AU) and sub-regional organizations in Africa to actively resolving African issues and promoting the African integration process as well as sub-regional economic integration and peace and development in Africa.
2.5.2 The two sides noted with satisfaction that China and the AU have set up and launched the Strategic Dialogue Mechanism and agreed to exchange views on China-Africa relations and other major issues through this mechanism. They support the AU in playing a bigger role in regional and international affairs.
2.5.3 To facilitate the development of relations, China expressed welcome to the establishment of an AU representative office in Beijing at an appropriate time.
2.5.4 The two sides noted that the FOCAC and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) share the objective of promoting peace and development in Africa, and agreed to continue exploring flexible and practical ways to enhance exchanges and cooperation between the two mechanisms.
2.5.5 The Government of China will reinforce its partnership with African regional organizations in the field of institutional capacity building necessary to conceive and execute regional projects.
2.5.6 To support African countries in their efforts to strengthen themselves through unity, China will enhance dialogues and exchanges with sub-regional organizations in Africa to exchange views with them on ways to better promote African integration and enhance cooperation between the two sides, and to actively explore the possibility of cooperation under the FOCAC framework.

2.6 Cooperation in the Fields of Peace and Security
2.6.1 The Chinese Government will continue to support the United Nations Security Council in playing a constructive role in solving conflicts in Africa and continue to support and participate in UN peacekeeping missions there. It will strengthen cooperation with countries concerned in the UN Peace Building Commission and support countries in their post-war reconstruction processes.
2.6.2 The Chinese Government appreciates the concept and practice of “Solving African Problems by Africans”. It will continue to support the efforts of the AU, other regional organizations and countries concerned to solve regional conflicts, and will intensify cooperation with African countries in peacekeeping theory research, peacekeeping training and exchanges and in supporting the building of peacekeeping capacity in Africa.
2.6.3 The African side expressed appreciation of the appointment of the Special Representative for African Affairs by the Chinese Government, as well as China’s efforts to enhance communication and dialogue with African countries in peace and security affairs and its active participation in efforts to resolve issues of instability and insecurity in Africa.
2.6.4 The African side welcomed China’s counter-piracy efforts in the Gulf of Aden and off the coast of Somalia in line with the spirit of relevant UN Security Council resolutions, which the two sides believed are conducive to security of the shipping routes in the waters concerned and peace and security in the region.

3. COOPERATION IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
3.1 The two sides expressed the view that the international situation is undergoing the most profound changes and adjustment after the end of the Cold War. The international financial crisis has led to a world economic recession and has brought about profound and complex changes to the international political and economic landscape. Therefore, it is of even greater importance to strengthen China-Africa cooperation in international affairs.
3.2 The two sides reaffirmed that Africa should be fully represented in the arrangements related to the world economy. The African side stressed the urgent need to enlarge the G20 and other existing mechanisms for international economy. The Chinese side expressed its full understanding for this request and stressed that existing mechanisms for international economic order must be balanced to ensure the fair representation of Africa.
3.3.1 The two sides reaffirmed their respect for the Charter of the United Nations, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and other universally recognized norms governing international relations.
3.3.2 The two sides will work together to uphold the important role of the United Nations in international affairs and promote multilateralism and democracy in international relations.
3.3.3 The two sides supported reform aimed at improving the authority and efficiency of the United Nations. Such reform should be based on democratic consultations and be conducive to upholding solidarity among member states, and should fully accommodate the concerns of developing countries.
3.3.4 The two sides reiterated that developing countries should play a greater role in the United Nations, including its Security Council, and priority must be given to increasing the representation of developing countries, particularly African countries, in the Security Council.
3.3.5 The two sides stand for reforms in the international financial system, and will work to increase the representation and say of developing countries and build an international financial system that is fair, just, inclusive and orderly.
3.4 The two sides noted that achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) remains an urgent and arduous task. The two sides hold that the current international financial crisis has made the realization of the MDGs more difficult, particularly for African countries which face bigger challenges. The two sides call on the international community, developed countries in particular, to promptly deliver their pledges of assistance and debt relief, continue to step up assistance and investment, and help African countries in particular to overcome the difficulties and realize the MDGs at an early date. China will exert its effort in this regard.
3.5 In tackling climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol should be taken as the main channel, and the mandate of the “Bali Roadmap” should be observed. Efforts should be made to seek a comprehensive solution within the framework of sustainable development. The international community should make active efforts to tackle climate change under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”. China recognized the urgent need of African countries to enhance their capacity to adapt to climate change, took note of the vulnerability of small island nations and the states of river deltas prone to flooding, and stressed that combating climate change is not an excuse to reduce attention to Africa’s development. China supports Africa’s legitimate demands, including those for more financial support and necessary technological transfer from developed countries to Africa. China stands ready to strengthen cooperation with Africa in tackling climate change.

3.6 The two sides will further coordinate position and continue to work for a successful conclusion of the Doha round negotiations within 2010 on the basis of respecting the negotiation mandate of the Doha development agenda and locking in the progress already made. The negotiations must address the concerns of developing countries, particularly least developed countries, in real earnest and realize the Development Round’s goals. The negotiations should also address the specific concerns of Small and Vulnerable Economies to facilitate their full integration into the multilateral trading system.

3.7 The two sides reaffirmed their respect for the principle of universality of human rights, with no prejudice to the cultural and social particularities with regard to perceiving and applying the concept, and with priority on the right to development. The two sides oppose politicization and double standards in the field of human rights.

3.8 The two sides condemned terrorism in all its forms and manifestations. The international community should make every effort to combat terrorism in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and other universally recognized international law and norms governing international relations. The two sides will strengthen counter-terrorism cooperation in order to safeguard their own national security and promote new progress in international counter-terrorism cooperation.

4. ECONOMIC COOPERATION
4.1 Agriculture and Food Security
4.1.1 The two sides commended Africa’s efforts in embracing a growth-oriented agricultural agenda through the Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Program (CAADP) aimed at increasing agricultural growth rates.
4.1.2 The two sides noted that food security is a major challenge facing the international community and it is particularly serious for African countries. Agricultural development holds the key to food security in Africa, and is essential for Africa’s endeavor to eradicate poverty, ensure people’s livelihood and develop the economy. The two sides decided to prioritize agriculture and food security in their cooperation.

4.1.3 The two sides were pleased to see the deepened and orderly growth of agricultural cooperation between China and Africa. They pledged to maintain and strengthen such cooperation and expand, in particular, cooperation in agricultural infrastructure, grain production, breeding industry, exchanges and transfer of practical agricultural technologies, and in processing, storage and transportation of agricultural products.

4.1.4 The Chinese Government offered to do the following:
-In the course of the next three years, send 50 agricultural technology teams to Africa and help train 2,000 agricultural technicians for African countries.
-In the course of the next three years, increase to 20 the total number of agricultural technology demonstration centers built for African countries.
-Continue to run well the agricultural technology demonstration centers already built. The centers will start to carry out experiments, demonstration projects, and training programs in crop seed selection, farming, fish breeding and animal raising.
-Implement the decision to contribute US$30 million to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO) to set up a trust fund, and actively use the trust fund to support South-South cooperation between China and African countries under the framework of the UNFAO Special Program for Food Security.

4.2 Investment and Business Cooperation
4.2.1 The two sides took note of the continued growth of two-way investment between China and Africa after the Beijing Summit in 2006, especially the fast growth of Chinese investment in Africa. The African side welcomes investment from China, and acknowledges its important role in bolstering local economic growth and sustainable development.
4.2.2 The two sides will continue to promote the conclusion and implementation of bilateral agreements on investment promotion and protection, and create a sound environment with a view to scaling up mutual investment. Governments of China and African countries give encouragement and support to their competitive businesses in investing in each other’s country so as to raise the level and quality of cooperation for mutual benefit and win-win results.

4.2.3 The Chinese side offered to increase the size of the China-Africa Development Fund to US$3 billion to support the expansion of investment from Chinese businesses to Africa.
4.2.4 The two sides will continue to do a good job in establishing overseas business cooperation zones in Africa, intensify efforts to attract investment, actively encourage more Chinese companies to make investment in the cooperation zones, and provide facilitation to African small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to develop their business in the zones.
4.2.5 Noting the outcomes of the China-Africa Business Conference held during this Ministerial Conference, the two sides will further encourage their business communities to strengthen cooperation and deepen economic and trade links.

4.3 Infrastructure
4.3.1 The two sides were of the view that underdeveloped infrastructure is an obstacle to Africa’s development and integration. China’s contribution to infrastructure development in Africa in recent years was appreciated.
4.3.2 The two sides agreed that infrastructure will remain a priority in China-Africa cooperation. In this context, the African side hopes that the Chinese side will support development projects that promote regional integration. Recognizing Africa’s urgent need for infrastructure development, the Chinese side will support the building of major infrastructure projects in Africa to promote Africa’s economic and social development.
4.3.3 The Chinese side will increase investment and play a larger role in infrastructure development in Africa through providing loans and free assistance to African countries and encouraging investment by Chinese companies. In the next three years, the Chinese side will provide US$10 billion of preferential loans to African countries, which will be used mainly to support infrastructure and social development projects.

4.4 Trade
4.4.1 The two sides will continue to promote trade between China and Africa, and broaden their economic cooperation, which is currently dominated by trade in goods, so that it becomes multi-pronged to include trade in goods, investment, trade in services, technology and project contracting.
4.4.2 The two sides were pleased to see the smooth implementation of the tariff exemption policy toward Africa, which has generated increasing benefits to the countries concerned. The two sides will continue to improve China-Africa trade mix and promote trade balance.
4.4.3 The Chinese side promised to further open its market to African countries. It offered to, in a phased manner, grant tariff exemption treatment to 95% of exports from the least developed countries (LDCs) in Africa having diplomatic relations with China. As the first step, the goal of zero tariff treatment for 60% of products originating therefrom will be met in 2010.
4.4.4 The two sides agreed to further enhance cooperation in customs, taxation, inspection and quarantine, and to conclude and implement relevant cooperation agreements for the sound development of China-Africa trade. China is ready to establish cooperation mechanisms with African countries on the supervision and administration of imports and exports and strengthen regulation of product quality and food safety in imports and exports to the benefit of consumers in China and Africa.
4.4.5 An African commodities trade center will be established in China and preferential policies such as fees reduction and wavering will be adopted for participating African enterprises to promote export of African commodities to China.
4.4.6 The Chinese side will establish three to five logistic centers in Africa to help improve business facilities in African countries.
4.4.7 The two sides agreed to properly handle trade differences and frictions through friendly consultation under the principle of mutual understanding and mutual accommodation.
4.4.8 The two sides agreed to encourage the usage of national and regional arbitration organs in resolving contractual conflicts between Chinese and African enterprises.

4.5 Finance and Banking Sector
4.5.1 The two sides will continue to step up cooperation between relevant Chinese financial institutions and African financial institutions in support of African regional economic integration.
4.5.2 The two sides will encourage business exchanges between the commercial banks of the two sides and the opening of branches in each other’s country on mutually beneficial commercial terms so as to provide financing support to major China-Africa economic and trade cooperation projects and create a favorable financial environment for China-Africa economic and trade cooperation.
4.5.3 The Chinese side supported the establishment by Chinese financial institutions of a special loan of US$1 billion for African SMEs development to help the growth of African SMEs.

4.6 Energy and Resources Cooperation
China and Africa enjoy complementarity and cooperation potential in energy and resources. China will continue to cooperate with Africa, in keeping with the principles of mutual benefit and sustainable development, and try to raise the added value of the energy and resources products of African countries and enhance their capacity for intensive processing.

4.7 Information and Communications
China will further enhance cooperation with the information and communications authorities of African countries. It will step up training for African personnel in this field and give encouragement and support to competitive Chinese information and communications companies in getting involved in the building of communications infrastructure in Africa and engaging in mutually beneficial cooperation with African counterparts.

4.8 Services Sector
The two sides took note of the increasing role of the services sector in boosting the economy, and agreed to intensify exchanges and cooperation in this field with a view to improving the economic and industrial structures and transforming the growth pattern.

4.9 Transportation
In view of the deepening cooperation and exchanges between China and Africa, and their huge potential in transportation development, the two sides agreed to continue to encourage and support more flights and shipping links to be set up by their airlines and shipping companies.

5. COOPERATION IN THE FIELD OF DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Assistance and Debt Relief
5.1.1 Africa appreciated the development assistance China has provided to Africa in diverse forms over a long period of time and the reduction and cancelling of debts for Africa. Africa took note of the remarkable strengthening of relevant measures following the Beijing Summit, which is conducive to the early realization of the MDGs in Africa.
5.1.2 Despite its own difficulties caused by the impact of the global financial crisis on the Chinese economy, China expressed commitment to further scaling up assistance to Africa, and prioritizing cooperation areas concerning people’s well-being, such as agriculture, infrastructure, public health, education, human resources development, clean energy and environmental protection.
5.1.3 The Chinese Government offered to cancel due debts of interest-free government loans that will mature by the end of 2009 owed by all heavily-indebted poor countries and the LDCs in Africa having diplomatic relations with China.
5.2 Human Resources Development
5.2.1 The two sides noted with satisfaction that with the joint efforts of the two sides, the scholarships, seminars and training programs China had sponsored made an important contribution to the human resources development of Africa.
5.2.2 The Chinese Government will continue to provide training for people from different sectors in Africa as the need arises, and pay special attention to raising the quality of such training. The Chinese Government undertakes to train a total of 20,000 people in various sectors for African countries in the next three years.
5.2.3 The Chinese side will make a US$1.5 million contribution to support NEPAD’s projects to train nurses and maternity assistants in Africa.
5.2.4 The African side undertakes to provide necessary support in the selection of trainees and logistics.

5.3 Education
5.3.1 The two sides expressed satisfaction with the continued progress in China-Africa education cooperation in recent years. The two sides stressed that better education is the basis of and holds the key to social stability and economic development, and the two sides will build on the existing achievements to further enhance their cooperation.
5.3.2 The Chinese Government offered to:
-Help African countries to build 50 China-Africa friendship schools in the next three years.
-Propose implementation of the 20+20 Cooperation Plan for Chinese and African Institutions of Higher Education to establish a new type of one-to-one inter-institutional cooperation model between 20 Chinese universities (or vocational colleges) and 20 African universities (or vocational colleges).
-Admit 200 middle and high level African administrative personnel to MPA programs in China in the next three years.
-Continue to raise the number of Chinese governmental scholarships and increase the number of scholarships offered to Africa to 5,500 by 2012.
-Intensify efforts to train teachers for primary, secondary and vocational schools in Africa, and help African countries train 1,500 school headmasters and teachers over the next three years.
-Continue to promote the development of Confucius institutes, increase the number of scholarships offered to Chinese language teachers to help them study in China, and double efforts to raise capacity of local African teachers to teach the Chinese language.

5.4 Cooperation in Science and Technology and Technology Transfer
5.4.1 The two sides agreed to hold a FOCAC Science and Technology Forum in due course and proposed to launch the China-Africa Science and Technology Partnership Plan to help African countries develop their own science and technology capacity.
-The Chinese side will carry out 100 joint research and demonstration projects in the next three years.
-The Chinese side will invite 100 African postdoctors to conduct scientific researches in China.
-The Chinese side will offer research instruments to all African scientific researchers who return to their home countries to work upon completion of their long-term joint research tasks in China.

5.4.2 To present African countries with China’s recent science and technology achievements in high, new and practical technologies, China will co-host with Egypt the China Exhibition on Innovative Technology and Products in Cairo in early December 2009.
5.4.3 Noting the important role of technology transfer in enhancing African countries’ capacity-building, China will encourage and promote technology transfer to Africa in various cooperation areas, in particular, the transfer of advanced applicable technologies with a major impact on Africa’s economic and social development, such as technologies for drinking water, agriculture, clean energy and health.

5.5 Cooperation in Poverty Reduction
5.5.1 Recognizing that poverty eradication is an arduous task for both sides, and noting Africa’s pressing need to accelerate the poverty reduction process, the two sides will step up cooperation and exchanges in this field.
5.5.2 China will continue to share experience in poverty reduction with African countries through seminars and training sessions in order to jointly raise development capacity and make poverty alleviation efforts more effective.

5.6 Medical Care and Public Health
5.6.1 The two sides agreed on the importance of strengthening health systems in Africa and improving its abilities to tackle the major challenge of diseases.

5.6.2 The two sides noted with pleasure the deepening health cooperation between the two sides. In particular, the hospitals and anti-malaria centers that China has undertaken to build will play a positive role in improving the health care level and protecting people’s health in African countries.

5.6.3 The two sides will step up exchanges, particularly their joint efforts to prevent and treat major communicable diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, avian influenza and influenza A (H1N1). The two sides will continue to enhance cooperation in setting up mechanisms to handle public health emergencies.

5.6.4 The Chinese Government offered to:
-Provide RMB500 million yuan worth of medical equipment and malaria-fighting materials to 30 hospitals and 30 malaria prevention and treatment centers built by China for Africa in the coming three years. China will invite African professionals working in malaria prevention and treatment centers to training programs in China in an effort to ensure sustainable development of the project.
-Continue to help relevant African countries train a total of 3,000 doctors, nurses and administrative personnel over the next three years.
-Continue to do a good job in sending medical teams to Africa.

5.7 Climate Change and Environmental Protection
5.7.1 The two sides noted the positive measures adopted by both sides to jointly tackle climate change. China had organized seminars and training programs on climate change, forest resources cultivation, the use of new energy, environmental management and pollution prevention and control for African countries.
5.7.2 To help African countries adapt to climate change and strengthen environmental protection, China will step up human resources training for African countries and expand bilateral exchanges and cooperation in the above-mentioned fields.
5.7.3 The two sides proposed the establishment of a China-Africa partnership in addressing climate change and the holding of senior officials consultations on a non-regular basis. The Chinese Government offered to assist African countries with 100 small-sized well digging projects for water supply and clean energy projects of biogas, solar energy and small hydro-power plants in the next three years.

5.7.4 China is ready to advance cooperation with African countries in environment surveillance, continue to share with African countries data from the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite and promote the application of the data in land use, weather monitoring and environmental protection in Africa.

5.7.5 China will help African countries better protect the ecosystem and biodiversity and improve the comprehensive treatment of desertified areas and the relevant surveillance capacity.

5.8 Disaster Reduction and Relief
5.8.1 The two sides recognized that enhanced cooperation in disaster reduction and relief is an effective means for the two sides to build capacity for preventing natural disasters, eradicating poverty and maintaining sustainable social development. They expressed satisfaction with the sound cooperation between the two sides in the relevant areas. China expressed gratitude to African countries for their support and all forms of assistance in the wake of the devastating Wenchuan earthquake.
5.8.2 China will be glad to share experience with African countries in reducing drought risks, and will send experts to Africa in due course to disseminate technologies and promote their application. China plans to co-sponsor, together with the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, a China-Africa international seminar on reducing drought risks in Africa in 2010.
5.8.3 China will strengthen exchanges and cooperation with African countries in surveillance and prevention of earthquake and other disasters as well as technical training in those areas.

5.9 Tourism
5.9.1 The two sides noted the recent good progress made in China-Africa tourism cooperation, the growing number of tourists and, in particular, the remarkable increase in Chinese tourists visiting Africa. African countries welcome this increase and will encourage their citizens to travel to China.
5.9.2 The two sides noted that developing tourism is an effective way to promote national economic growth and cultural exchanges. They will take concrete steps to make travel both ways more convenient. In response to Africa’s request, the Chinese Government will add more eligible African countries to the list of the Approved Destination Status (ADS) for Chinese tourists.
5.9.3 The Chinese side reaffirmed its support to Chinese enterprises’ investment in the tourism sector in Africa, and to greater efforts to promote African tourist destinations.

6. CULTURAL AND PEOPLE-TO-PEOPLE EXCHANGES AND COOPERATION
6.1 Culture
6.1.1 The two sides noted with satisfaction that China-Africa cultural exchanges and cooperation have kept expanding with fruitful results in recent years. Recognizing the splendid histories and cultures of both China and Africa, the two sides agreed to strengthen cultural exchanges and mutual learning to help advance dialogue and exchanges among different civilizations.
6.1.2 The two sides agreed to remain committed to China-Africa cultural exchanges and cooperation, and decided to:
-Hold the FOCAC Culture Forum in due course, and strengthen regular consultations between government cultural departments of the two sides.
-Continue to follow through on projects under the implementation plan of the China-Africa bilateral government cultural agreements, and conduct mid-term assessment on their implementation.
-Work together to promote “Cultures in Focus” events in China-Africa cultural exchanges. “African Culture in Focus” events will be held in even number years in China and “Chinese Culture in Focus” in odd number years in Africa.
-Faithfully implement the China-Africa exchange of visits program in the cultural field, and strengthen exchanges and cooperation between cultural and art authorities and professionals of the two sides.
-Strengthen cooperation and build more Chinese cultural centers in Africa to facilitate regular cultural exchanges, public understanding and research.
-Promote cultures of the two sides through new technologies such as the internet to increase mutual understanding.

6.2 Press
6.2.1 The two sides will continue to strengthen exchanges and cooperation between press departments of the Chinese and African governments, and support the annual press workshop for African officials.
6.2.2 The two sides will promote mutual visits between Chinese and African press department officials, editors and journalists, support the posting of journalists to each other’s country by news organizations of the two sides, and encourage news media of the two sides to step up objective and fair coverage on China and Africa.
6.2.3 The two sides will increase cooperation in radio and television program production by conducting exchanges at various levels and in various forms.

6.3 Exchanges Between Academia and Think Tanks
6.3.1 The two sides noted that dynamic exchanges between academia and think tanks are instrumental in increasing mutual understanding between the peoples.
6.3.2 The two sides proposed to implement a China-Africa joint research and exchange plan to strengthen cooperation and exchanges between scholars and think tanks of the two sides through a variety of ways, such as seminars, mutual academic visits, and joint research projects.
6.4 People-to-People, Youth and Women Exchanges
6.4.1 The two sides noted that people-to-people exchanges are conducive to mutual understanding and important to the deepening of China-Africa friendship. The two sides remain committed to promoting people-to-people exchanges.
6.4.2 The two sides held that more China-Africa youth exchanges provided a new impetus to China-Africa traditional friendship and met the needs of both sides. The two sides expressed satisfaction with the active youth exchanges after the Beijing Summit.
6.4.3 The two sides resolved to continue to increase dialogue and exchanges between the younger generations, and advance practical cooperation between youth organizations and young people in youth affairs, social development, culture, sports, and volunteer service.
6.4.4 The two sides support the Tunisian initiative, proposing the year 2010 as the "International Year of the Youth" as well as the organization of an international conference for the youth that will be convened under the auspices of the UN and other relevant international organizations .
6.4.5 Noting the results of the FOCAC Women’s Forum held in Cairo and the release of the FOCAC Women’s Forum Declaration 2009, the two sides held that the forum helped to enhance the role of women in promoting economic and social development and enriched China-Africa traditional friendship.
6.4.6 The two sides recognized the importance of promoting gender equality and the status of women, and resolved to strengthen exchanges and cooperation between Chinese and African women in multiple forms, such as seminars and technical training.

6.5 Sports
6.5.1 China appreciated African countries’ active support for and participation in the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008. The two sides agreed to further increase sports exchanges and cooperation.
6.5.2 China fully supports the Africa Cup of Nations, scheduled for January 2010 in Angola, as well as the 2010 FIFA World Cup, to be hosted by Africa for the first time, and wishes both events complete success.

6.6 World Expo
China expressed appreciation to African countries’ active participation in World Expo 2010 Shanghai. China offered due support to African countries in their participation with a view to fully showcasing Africa’s economic development, progress, opportunities, culture and to promoting a better understanding of Africa in the world. African countries appreciated this and wished the Shanghai Expo a complete success.

7. FOCAC
7.1 The two sides noted with satisfaction that since the establishment of FOCAC in 2000, follow-up mechanisms and procedures have been introduced such as the Ministerial Conference, the regular political dialogue between Chinese and African foreign ministers, the Senior Officials Meeting (SOM), and consultations between African diplomatic missions in China and the Secretariat of the Chinese Follow-up Committee. The two sides agreed that FOCAC has become an important platform for collective dialogue and an effective mechanism of practical cooperation between China and Africa.
7.2 The two sides recognized the need to further strengthen FOCAC as China-Africa relations continue to expand and deepen. The two sides give encouragement and support to relevant departments in China and Africa in holding sub-forums within the FOCAC framework in order to boost cooperation between functional departments of the two sides.
7.3 Following the FOCAC follow-up mechanism procedures, the two sides decided to hold the Fifth Ministerial Conference in 2012, and the 8th SOM in 2011, both to be held in China.

November 12, 2009

Thursday, November 12, 2009

79) China and cyberwar: a serious foe, according the Americans

China proves to be an aggressive foe in cyberspace
By Ellen Nakashima and John Pomfret
The Washington Post, Wednesday, November 11, 2009

One day in late summer 2008, FBI and Secret Service agents flew to Chicago to inform Barack Obama's campaign team that its computer system had been hacked. "You've got a problem. Somebody's trying to get inside your systems," an FBI agent told the team, according to a source familiar with the incident.

The McCain campaign was hit with a similar attack.

The trail in both cases led to computers in China, said several sources inside and outside government with knowledge of the incidents. In the McCain case, Chinese officials later approached staff members about information that had appeared only in restricted e-mails, according to a person close to the campaign.

American presidential campaigns are not the only targets. China is significantly boosting its capabilities in cyberspace as a way to gather intelligence and, in the event of war, hit the U.S. government in a weak spot, U.S. officials and experts say. Outgunned and outspent in terms of traditional military hardware, China apparently hopes that by concentrating on holes in the U.S. security architecture -- its communications and spy satellites and its vast computer networks -- it will collect intelligence that could help it counter the imbalance.

President Obama, who is scheduled to visit China next week, has vowed to improve ties with the Asian giant, especially its military. But according to current and former U.S. officials, China's aggressive hacking has sowed doubts about its intentions.

"This is the way they plan to thwart U.S. supremacy in any potential conflict we get into with them," said Robert K. Knake, a Council on Foreign Relations fellow. "They believe they can deter us through cyber warfare."

Chinese officials deny that and dismiss American concern as a Cold War relic.

"Allegations that China is behind, or 'likely behind,' cyberattacks or cyber espionage against the United States are more frequent and more sensational," said Wang Baodong, the spokesman at the Chinese Embassy in Washington. "Such accusations are unwarranted, irresponsible and misleading and are intentionally fabricated to fan up China threat sensations."

With 360 million people online in China, Wang added, "China is more than ever integrated with and reliant on the Internet. As the U.S. serves as the hub of the international information highway, attacking the U.S. in cyberspace equals attacking one's own cyberspace assets. . . . What's the logic?"

Nonetheless, U.S. officials and experts of all political persuasions in the Pentagon, on Capitol Hill, in private industry and in think tanks are convinced that China is behind many of the most egregious attacks. A senior Air Force official estimated that, as of two years ago, China has stolen at least 10 to 20 terabytes of data from U.S. government networks -- the larger figure equal, by some estimates, to one-fifth of the Library of Congress's digital holdings.

Nuclear weapons labs, defense contractors, the State Department and other sensitive federal government agencies have fallen prey. What experts do not know is exactly what has been stolen or how badly U.S. systems have been exposed. "Given the intrusions into defense industry networks, multibillion-dollar weapons systems . . . may have already been compromised," said James Mulvenon, a China expert with Defense Group Inc.

Experts point to the late 1990s as the start of this undeclared war. Since then, cyber intrusions have run the gamut, including stealing files on political dissidents from the offices of Rep. Frank R. Wolf (R-Va.) in 2006, disrupting the e-mail network of the defense secretary's office in 2007 and staging a spyware attack on electronic devices used by then-Commerce Secretary Carlos M. Gutierrez and his delegation on a December 2007 trip to Beijing.

Wolf said that the offices of 17 House members have been targeted. "Not a week doesn't go by when there's not a Chinese attack on our government," he said.

One day last spring, Capitol Hill security officials removed two computers from a congressional office that deals with foreign affairs. "There's a bug in your computer," one agent told an astonished staffer. "From China."

Director of National Intelligence Dennis C. Blair said in February that Russia and China were able to "to target and disrupt elements of the U.S. information infrastructure" and that China was "very aggressive" in cyberspace.

Another problem is China's ability to leave behind malicious sleeper code that can one day be activated to alter or destroy information. In April, then-National Counterintelligence Executive Joel F. Brenner reported that the Chinese had penetrated "certain of our electricity grids" with malicious code and that "our networks are being mapped"

One challenge in countering the threat, experts say, is that the Chinese often contract out such work to experts in industry and academia and possibly even to freelance hackers, allowing officials to argue that while an attack might have originated from an Internet service provider in China, no one could prove it came from the government.

The Chinese People's Liberation Army has publicly embraced such outsourcing. In 2002, the PLA created information warfare units, comprising operators and analysts from the commercial sector and academia, according to a new reportby defense contractor Northrop Grumman for the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, a congressionally chartered body.

A year later, China's Academy of Military Sciences published an account of a trial project in the Guangzhou Military Region to establish information-warfare militia units using local telecommunications companies as a source of talent, funding and technology. Subsequently, the academy directed the PLA to make creation of such units a priority.

"Information warfare is not just a theology," said Ming Zhou, a China specialist with VeriSign iDefense, a security intelligence firm. "They can integrate it into nation-state interests."

Some U.S. cyber policy experts such as James A. Lewis, a senior fellow with the Center for Strategic and International Studies, acknowledge that the problem cannot be solved without international engagement. At the same time, Lewis said, "I'm not going to get upset about China spying on us, because we spy on them."

"The only thing I'm going to get upset about," he said, "is if we don't do better than them."

78) Carta de Shanghai, 1: O que eu sei sobre a China?

Carta de Shanghai, 1:
O que eu sei sobre a China?; e o que pretendo aprender…

Paulo Roberto de Almeida
(www.pralmeida.org; pralmeida@mac.com)
(escrito em vôo: Brasília-São Paulo, 4.11.2009)

O que eu sei sobre a China? Muito pouco, sem dúvida, mas tenho a intenção de aprender bastante, no curso dos próximos meses (e talvez anos).
Decidi aceitar uma missão temporária na China, mais precisamente em Shanghai, onde vou assumir a direção do pavilhão do Brasil na Exposição Universal que ali se realizará de maio a outubro de 2010. Trata-se de um novo e importante (e interessante) desafio em minha carreira profissional, tanto pelo trabalho em si, quanto pelo país, obviamente, o de maior projeção internacional na atualidade, pelas suas promessas de crescimento e de ascensão na escala mundial de poder e prestígio.

Por que aceitei a missão? Em primeiro lugar porque fui para tal autorizado pela minha caríssima, diletíssima e queridíssima esposa – desculpem o excesso de “íssimas”, mas cabem a ela – Carmen Lícia, que teria a última palavra em qualquer decisão nesse sentido: ou seja, se ela se opusesse à idéia, eu simplesmente não aceitaria o encargo, mesmo estando nele interessado e decidido a aceitar preventivamente. Parto do princípio de que a família passa na frente da carreira, ou das decisões profissionais, embora toda decisão, ou escolha, nesse âmbito sempre é difícil, tendo em conta as inúmeras variáveis em consideração. Uma vez recebido o convite, ou a oferta, procurei informar-me suficientemente sobre o país e sobre a natureza do trabalho, antes de apresentar tal oferta a Carmen Lícia. Para minha surpresa, e alívio, ela aceitou imediata e entusiasticamente, sem nenhuma objeção de princípio, o que me deixou muito contente, pois temia alguma hesitação ao projeto, pelo seu caráter provisório, ou pelas características do país. Eu lhe sou grato por isso, e creio que ela retirará, inclusive, bem maior proveito desta missão, do que eu, que terei de me desempenhar na representação burocrática e nos afazeres oficiais.
Bem, considerações pessoais à parte, vejamos o que me atraiu no convite e na perspectiva da missão. Porque se trata, em primeiro lugar, de um bom desafio intelectual, já que a China constitui, provavelmente, o país mais curioso, misterioso e fascinante da atualidade (ou talvez tenha o sido desde a mais remota antiguidade, pelo menos da perspectiva dos nossos olhos, ocidentais). Também porque se trata, como expressamente esclarecido, de uma designação temporária, sete ou oito meses no máximo, o suficiente para tentar conhecer a China – ou obter alguma compreensão um pouco mais ampla, e talvez uma idéia um pouco mais precisa – sobre o que ela representa para a economia mundial e sobre o seu futuro papel na política mundial. Ou seja, estarei de volta antes de ter tido tempo suficiente para aprender o mandarim.
Sobre a língua, de fato, se trata de um obstáculo relativo, mas menos do que se pensa e menos do que parece. Mas, aparentemente, não terei tempo para aprendê-la de maneira suficientemente satisfatória, tendo em vista minhas outras obrigações profissionais e emprego do tempo. Não que eu repugne aprender a língua oficial e veicular da China, mas é que também pretendo me concentrar em tantas outras coisas que, creio, não poderei alocar tempo suficiente para aprendê-la, tarefa que deleguei, em parte, a Carmen Lícia, esta inteligentíssima esposa que me acompanhará o tempo todo.

Mas, voltemos ao tema desta primeira “carta de Shanghai”: o que eu sei sobre a China e o que pretendo aprender durante minha curta estada na grande nação asiática? Em duas breves expressões: muito pouco, e tudo o que for possível aprender no curto espaço de seis ou sete meses (mas já estou aprendendo antes, desde agora, de forma sistemática). Paradoxalmente, já que pretendo aprender muito sobre a China, por que não dedicar-me mais intensamente ao estudo do mandarim, que seria instrumental para o meu objetivo principal? Bem, minha explicação seria puramente racional e tem a ver justamente com a insuficiência de tempo para fazer tudo o que seria humanamente possível de fazer em relação a um conhecimento mais aprofundado da China.
Minha área básica de trabalho é a economia mundial, o desenvolvimento econômico, as instituições políticas, os problemas da paz e da guerra em um mundo ainda em transição para uma ordem menos anárquica do que aquele que vivemos em grande parte do século 20 (e que ainda está conosco residualmente). Ora, a maior parte da literatura nesses campos está em inglês ou em outras línguas ocidentais, ainda que não se possa descurar a (presumível e esperada) produção própria da China, geralmente acadêmica, que é crescente e da maior qualidade (segundo leio em artigos especializados), à medida que o país já abandonou as misérias intelectuais do maoísmo delirante e se abre à globalização, inclusive científica. Possivelmente, também, todos os meus interlocutores chineses nas matérias e áreas por mim selecionadas falarão ou entenderão inglês, e com eles poderei interagir o suficiente para me informar e dialogar sobre o país e seu papel na economia e na política mundiais.
De toda forma, aprender mandarim seria importante se eu me dedicasse ao aprendizado de aspectos diversos da cultura chinesa, sua literatura, folclore, costumes e tradições, o que também procurarei fazer na medida do possível. Mas o cálculo é simples: o tempo empenhado no estudo da língua – seus fonemas e ideogramas – seria retirado de esforço equivalente no estudo e conhecimento de áreas de meu interesse primordial, o que poderei fazer em inglês, inclusive para interagir com o público at large. Dessa forma, estou decidido a concentrar-me na China da globalização, não na China da tradição, de suas aldeias e costumes ancestrais. Talvez seja um erro, do qual eu venha a me arrepender no mesmo momento, e pode parecer uma decisão mal avisada; na vida, contudo, sempre temos de fazer escolhas difíceis entre objetivos conflitantes. Por outro lado, não deixarei de aproveitar-me dos conhecimentos sobre o povo, seus hábitos e outras características que o domínio sobre a língua que Carmen Lícia pretende adquirir nos permitirá (o que, aliás, ela já vem fazendo preventivamente).

Pois bem, retomando o título desta minha primeira “carta de Shanghai” – não pretendo usar a forma brasileira Xangai – o que, de verdade, eu conheço sobre a China? Para ser claro, muito pouco, apenas o que consegui aprender, rápida e superficialmente, nos artigos de jornais e revistas – tipo Economist, Financial Times, New York Times, Foreign Policy e Foreign Affairs – ademais de boletins e estudos de organismos internacionais e think tanks americanos e europeus. Ou seja: um conhecimento basicamente ocidental e focado na economia e nas relações internacionais, o que é, obviamente, uma parte muito pequena das realidades chinesas. Também já li alguma coisa nos livros de história e de política internacional, no se refere à China, materiais que estou agora devorando com uma ênfase particular naqueles temas de meu interesse. Em recente viagem à Europa adquiri um bom guia – Lonely Planet, que recomendo – e diversos livros sobre a China. Graças a Carmen Lícia, acabo de ler a Historia Mongalorum – Storia dei Mongoli, ou Tartari (1247) – do franciscano Giovanni dei Pian di Carpine, o primeiro ocidental a ter visitado a China, entre Gengis Khan e Kublai Khan, numa missão (diplomática, mas também de espionagem militar) a serviço do papa Inocêncio IV.
Preparando-me para a minha missão (puramente diplomática, mas certamente, também, de espionagem intelectual), criei um blog, Shanghai Express, no qual estou “depositando” tudo o que eu encontro de interessante sobre a China naquelas áreas de meu interesse específico. Nada de muito planejado ou organizado: apenas uma plataforma eletrônica de apoio a minhas leituras e para a coleta e disponibilização de todo tipo de dado sobre os “meus tártaros”. Tenho grandes expectativas a essa missão transitória, além e acima do mero encargo burocrático de representação do Brasil durante a Shanghai Expo.
Gostaria de ter a oportunidade de viajar pelo país e adjacências, o que farei na medida do possível. Pretendo entrar em contato com acadêmicos, funcionários do governo e cidadãos comuns, capitalistas ou trabalhadores, para interagir em função de meus objetivos de conhecimento aprofundado e de compreensão do papel da China no contexto internacional. Ou seja, pretendo aprender muito e, conscientemente, tentar disseminar um pouco do que eu conseguir aprender para um público mais vasto, especialmente no Brasil, que continua a ser a base principal de meu trabalho intelectual.
De fato, nunca fui um “orientalista” e muito menos um “asiatista” ou sinólogo; ao contrário, sempre fui um “brasilianista”, obsessivamente preocupado com os problemas do desenvolvimento brasileiro. Pois bem, chegou a hora de me ocupar agora de um país distante, mas muito presente, quase desconhecido para a maior parte dos ocidentais, mas tremendamente importante para o mundo e para o Brasil, nessa ordem. Espero estar à altura do desafio, não exatamente o de representar o Brasil na Expo – pois isso é o mínimo que se poderia esperar de um profissional – mas do gigantesco desafio que representa aprender o máximo possível sobre a China e a sua vasta região, de fato “apreender” exatamente qual é o seu papel no mundo de hoje, na economia do futuro, e depois ser capaz de transmitir tudo (ou pelo menos um pouco) do que consegui aprender a meus eventuais leitores e colegas de academia e de profissão.

A China é, em si e por si, mais do que um continente inteiro, um vasto mundo, o país do momento e também a nação do futuro, o imediato e o previsível. Desejo aprender, compreender, traduzir e transmitir algo de meus novos e projetados conhecimentos; creio, aliás, que Lao Tsé, Confúcio e outros distinguidos pensadores chineses se encaixariam bem na minha coleção de “clássicos revisitados”, dos quais já “extraí” um Manifesto Comunista na era da globalização, um Moderno Príncipe (que Maquiavel talvez apreciasse) e um De la Démocratie au Brésil, que precisou mobilizar novamente os dotes de viajante de Tocqueville. Não tenho certeza de que, no plano puramente político, a China tenha mudado muito desde os tempos de frei Giovanni, no século 13. Mas ela certamente se transformou enormemente nos últimos trinta anos, e está transformando a região e o mundo. Espero testemunhar um pouco sobre esse seu papel revolucionário no contexto das relações internacionais e da geoeconomia mundial. Veremos o que resulta desta aventura intelectual e deste empreendimento de sinologia aplicada.

Brasília-São Paulo, 4 novembro 2009.

Tuesday, November 10, 2009

77) Reestatizacao na China: criticas de economista chines

China vive ciclo de reestatização
HUANG YASHENG
RAUL JUSTE LORES - DE PEQUIM
Folha de S. Paulo, 01/11/2009

Um dos mais influentes estudiosos do país afirma que controle do governo e de estatais asfixia economia

A CHINA VIVE um processo de reestatização que prejudica o empreendedorismo local, segundo um dos mais influentes economistas do país. "A China continua em crise, pois a qualidade desse crescimento de 8% em 2009 não é boa nem sustentável", diz Huang Yasheng, professor de Economia Política na Escola de Gerenciamento Sloan do Instituto de Tecnologia de Massachusetts (MIT) e professor convidado da Universidade Tsinghua, onde estudaram o presidente Hu Jintao e boa parte da elite comunista. No ano passado, Huang escreveu "Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics" (capitalismo com características chinesas), considerado um dos dez melhores livros do ano pela "Economist".
No livro, o professor afirma que há um controle asfixiante das grandes estatais e da estrutura do Partido Comunista na economia do país e que vai levar muito tempo para que o mercado doméstico chinês substitua o peso das exportações. Nascido em Pequim, ele conversou com a Folha em uma de suas três viagens anuais à sua cidade natal.
CRISE CONTINUA
Se você conversa com banqueiros ou economistas de bancos ou fundos de investimento, a China está ótima e pouco sofreu com a crise. Mas, se você fala com chineses comuns, com empresários, com quem está fora das grandes estatais, a crise continua. O consumo de eletricidade caiu 50% para as pequenas e as médias empresas.
Há deflação, e dois terços dos empréstimos concedidos foram dados às companhias estatais e aos governos provinciais.
O pacote de estímulo foi bem-sucedido no combate ao desemprego. Boa parte dos migrantes rurais que perderam o trabalho em 2008 já se recolocou, e há um aspecto positivo na alta dos investimentos na China rural. Mas muitos trabalhadores tiveram de aceitar salário menor para se recolocar.

MERCADO DOMÉSTICO
A curto prazo, a China não vai conseguir substituir seu mercado externo por um mercado doméstico. O governo é rico, as empresas estatais não sabem onde gastar, mas a sociedade ainda é pobre.
O consumo doméstico representa 60% do PIB do Brasil, 55% do da Índia e mais de 70% do PIB dos EUA. Na China, não chega a 30%. Por isso, o governo continua a subsidiar as exportações chinesas e a comprar dólares. Porque não tem como compensar a crise externa com o mercado interno. Guerras comerciais surgirão em vários países para conter as exportações subsidiadas chinesas.
O governo chinês precisa começar urgentemente uma distribuição de renda de bilhões de dólares, como um Bolsa Família, pelo menos para a população rural do país.

CONCENTRAÇÃO
Os arranha-céus e os prédios moderníssimos que são vistos em qualquer grande cidade não são a prova do dinamismo, e, sim, o sintoma do que está errado no modelo. Se a nova ópera de Pequim custou US$ 400 milhões e a nova sede da CCTV custará cerca de US$ 1 bilhão, vemos que há excessiva concentração de poder e dinheiro.
Ao mesmo tempo, as escolas de Sichuan viraram pó após o terremoto porque foram construídas com material barato. Há milhões de metros quadrados vazios em qualquer grande cidade chinesa, em uma evidente bolha imobiliária.

REESTATIZAÇÃO
Nos anos 1960 e 1970, Brasil, Índia e México tiveram uma política industrial estatista e centralizadora, que lembra muito o atual modelo chinês. E foi um fracasso. A China foi muito mais bem-sucedida nos anos 1980, quando tinha uma economia mais aberta, a prioridade era gerar milhões de empregos e o empreendedorismo floresceu.
Na última década, parte dessa liberdade se perdeu, o Estado avançou, voraz, em todas as áreas. Nos anos 80, havia mais crédito para os pequenos empreendedores que hoje, quando os bancos são muito mais ricos. Há um retrocesso na abertura econômica chinesa.

ARMADILHA EM DÓLAR
A China entrou em uma armadilha ao comprar tantos dólares, tantos títulos da dívida dos Estados Unidos [US$ 2,3 trilhões, as maiores reservas globais em moeda estrangeira] e não tem como sair dela tão cedo. Comprou tantos dólares e criou reservas internacionais tão monumentais que, se deixar de comprar dólar, vai enfraquecer seu valor e perder parte de sua riqueza. Virou uma droga da qual a China não pode largar, é dependente da política norte-americana.
Os bancos só não implodem porque têm um público cativo. Como há diversos controles para a entrada e a saída de dinheiro no país, os bancos estatais são a única fonte de poupança para milhões de chineses, especialmente os 200 milhões de migrantes rurais, os que mais poupam. Eles não sabem investir na Bolsa de Valores. Mas, se amanhã todos fossem aos bancos chineses pedir seu dinheiro de volta, veriam que esse dinheiro não existe, foi emprestado para alguma grande empresa estatal.

HORA DO BRASIL
Para a China, o Brasil é ferro, é soja, é uma fonte de recursos naturais de que ela desesperadamente precisa. Mas, por conta da recessão nos países ricos, a China começa a despertar para o Brasil como um mercado alternativo para seus produtos.
O Brasil poderá tirar muitas vantagens dessa situação, se souber negociar. Mas, para isso, precisa entender a China. Contaram-me que não existe um único centro de estudos sobre a China nas universidades brasileiras, o que é um espanto. Qualquer boa universidade americana, europeia ou asiática já tem um bom centro com sinólogos há anos. Todas as vezes em que estive no Brasil fui convidado por seminários empresariais, nunca pela academia.

PRIORIDADES CERTAS
O governo de Hu Jintao e Wen Jiabao é um avanço monumental em relação ao governo anterior, de Jiang Zemin, que criou esse modelo estatista e de alguns poucos enriquecendo muito. As prioridades de Hu Jintao, "sociedade harmoniosa, desenvolvimento científico e energia eficiente", são as corretas e até acho que ele tem feito a coisa certa quanto a priorizar a economia rural. Mas é muito pouco. Os chefões de estatais e Províncias, que ganham com o atual modelo, não querem nenhuma mudança.

"MADE IN CHINA"
O capitalismo chinês ainda tem um lado obscuro, no aspecto ético. Quando Japão, Coreia do Sul e Taiwan estavam na fase de dentição, também faziam produtos com defeitos, de má qualidade, por falta de conhecimento. Na China, continua-se fazendo produtos defeituosos ou perigosos só por economia, por má-fé.
O Japão e a Coreia do Sul criaram marcas fortes, enquanto a China ainda patina. Se há um problema em um produto da Sony, não afetará todos os produtos japoneses. Mas, quando há um leite contaminado, uma boneca tóxica, uma parede de gesso ou um creme dental contaminado, é todo o "made in China" que é afetado.

EDUCAÇÃO
Uma das maiores razões do crescimento chinês, a que poucos dão crédito, é que, nos últimos 50, 60 anos, investimos muito em educação, da base à universidade. É o que nos aproxima dos modelos japonês, sul-coreano ou taiwanês. Mesmo nos anos Mao, é preciso reconhecer, a educação de base foi prioritária e melhorou muito. Quando a economia se abriu, tínhamos uma força de trabalho já educada. Qualquer pesquisa internacional vai dizer que você é melhor empregado, é melhor gerente ou é melhor empreendedor se passou vários anos por uma escola de qualidade. Essa é uma vantagem.
SOCIEDADE POBRE
O crescimento da renda da população rural na China se desacelerou para menos da metade do que era na década de 1980. O sistema de crédito rural desmoronou nos anos 1990. Nos 1980, 30% dos lares rurais tinham acesso a algum tipo de crédito; na década passada, o número encolheu para 10%.
Nos anos 1980, o governo representava 10% das vendas no varejo e hoje responde por 30% do total. Enquanto o consumo dos lares chineses, que era de 47% do PIB em 2000, caiu para 33% em 2007. Hoje não deve chegar a 30%. Esse consumo doméstico é menos da metade que o dos lares norte-americanos ou australianos e pelo menos 20 pontos percentuais abaixo dos de Brasil, Índia e África do Sul.

MAIS ABERTURA
Acho que o capitalismo chinês já está forçando uma abertura política. É normal que a imprensa se detenha nos casos de censura e injustiça, mas opiniões divergentes são cada vez mais ouvidas na China, mais do que há dez ou 20 anos. A discussão na internet já está instalada, e casos notórios de corrupção ou injustiça acabam sendo revelados e julgados por conta da repercussão na rede. O próprio pacote de estímulo foi bastante criticado em artigos, entrevistas e blogs. Parece pouco, mas é um importante passo.

76) China - America Latina, visto de Washington

O dragão e sua máscara de panda
Ricardo Balthazar
Valor Econômico, 10.11.2009

A China é um animal intrigante. A maioria das pessoas se acostumou a ver o país como um dragão assustador que não tem medo de usar sua força para esmagar os competidores. As autoridades chinesas detestam a caricatura. Elas preferem apresentar o país ao resto do mundo como se ele fosse um panda, um bicho de índole pacífica e sempre pronto a fazer amigos.

As duas máscaras foram exibidas nos últimos meses. Enquanto as economias avançadas afundavam sob os destroços da crise financeira, a China atravessou a longa recessão global crescendo num passo acelerado. O apetite insaciável do panda por alimentos e matérias-primas ajudou o Brasil e outros países emergentes a sair mais rápido da crise.

O cheiro de enxofre voltou com o fim da recessão. A China amarrou o yuan ao dólar para enfrentar a crise e continua mantendo sua moeda artificialmente desvalorizada. A proteção das asas do dragão assegura vantagens enormes para os exportadores chineses e prejudica indústrias de países como o Brasil, que estão perdendo o fôlego na corrida com os rivais.

A crise internacional tornou evidentes os riscos e as oportunidades que a expansão da China traz para o resto do mundo. Mas os últimos meses também serviram para reforçar estereótipos e alimentar equívocos sobre as intenções da China, suas prioridades e sua capacidade de realizar suas ambições.

Um bom exemplo é a preocupação que o crescente envolvimento entre a China e a América Latina desperta nos Estados Unidos. Muitos americanos acreditam que a China decidiu se aproveitar da perda de influência que os EUA sofreram na vizinhança nos últimos tempos e tem um plano secreto para ocupar seu lugar.

Trata-se de um exagero, como ficou claro durante um debate organizado na semana passada em Washington pela Universidade Nacional de Defesa, ligada ao governo americano, e pela Instituição Brookings, um influente centro de estudos. A China está longe de assumir um papel hegemônico como o exercido pelos EUA na região e há motivos para duvidar que fará isso um dia.

O único país da vizinhança que parece realmente desejar que a China ofereça um contrapeso político à influência dos EUA é a Venezuela, mas as autoridades chinesas jamais demonstraram qualquer simpatia pelas ambições bolivarianas do presidente venezuelano, Hugo Chávez. Não há razão para alarme, diz Dan Erikson, um especialista do Diálogo Interamericano. O que todo mundo quer na América Latina é mais comércio e investimentos.

Países como o Brasil saíram da crise convencidos de que precisam fazer de tudo para garantir seu acesso a mercados externos diversificados e evitar os riscos criados por uma dependência excessiva da economia americana. Mas muitos observadores duvidam que a China terá condições de continuar sustentando por muito tempo as taxas de crescimento exuberantes que exibe atualmente.

A demanda chinesa foi estimulada por dois fatores que tendem a perder importância no futuro, a decisão do governo de aproveitar a crise para acumular estoques de matérias-primas e os investimentos em infraestrutura financiados pelo gigantesco pacote de estímulo econômico lançado no auge da recessão global.

O câmbio e os prejuízos sofridos pelas indústrias que competem diretamente com os exportadores chineses têm alimentado tensões em toda parte. O Brasil e outros países latino-americanos impuseram tarifas para proteger indústrias domésticas contra as importações chinesas 142 vezes na última década, segundo o economista Jiang Shixue, da Academia Chinesa de Ciências Sociais.

Mas o abraço com o panda também traz benefícios que raramente são lembrados. Muitas empresas têm aproveitado a aproximação com a China para se modernizar e se tornar mais competitivas. Máquinas, insumos e componentes representam mais de três quartos do que o Brasil importa da China hoje, calcula o secretário-executivo do Conselho Empresarial Brasil-China, Rodrigo Maciel.

Ele acha que falta às empresas brasileiras uma estratégia para explorar as inúmeras vantagens oferecidas pelo avanço da China. O governo chinês tem sido pressionado pelo mundo inteiro a adotar medidas que estimulem o enorme potencial de consumo do seu mercado doméstico. Poucas empresas brasileiras estão se preparando para o dia em que essas pressões produzirão resultados.

Quem teve a última palavra no debate da semana passada em Washington foi Charles Freeman, um veterano diplomata americano que foi o intérprete do presidente Richard Nixon na histórica viagem oficial que reatou as relações diplomáticas entre os EUA e a China em 1972.

Ele lembrou que os chineses cobiçam os recursos naturais da América Latina desde a época em que os conquistadores espanhóis chegaram ao continente e previu que a relação do país com a região só ganhará importância nos próximos anos. Falta os empresários da região darem o próximo passo. Estudem mandarim e aprendam a vender seus produtos para os chineses também, Freeman sugeriu.

Ricardo Balthazar é correspondente em Washington.

Sunday, November 8, 2009

75) Trade frictions USA-China

China Decries U.S. Anti-Dumping Duties
International Herald tribune, November 6, 2009
(abridged)

Beijing — China denounced new U.S. anti-dumping duties on steel pipes as protectionist Friday and opened its own investigation into imports of U.S.-made automobiles, little more than a week before a visit by President Barack Obama. Beijing also called for Washington’s swift recognition that China is a market economy — a designation that would make it harder for the United States to declare that Chinese products were being dumped at prices below market value.
On Thursday, Washington imposed preliminary anti-dumping duties on Chinese-made pipes used in the oil and gas industry. That followed countervailing duties on the pipes, announced in September. “China resolutely opposes the abuse of protectionist measures,” the Chinese Commerce Ministry said on its Web site.
Mr. Obama will visit China for several days beginning Nov. 15. Trade disputes are likely to feature prominently in his discussions with Chinese officials. China’s investigation into alleged U.S. auto export subsidies would target sedans with engine capacity of 2 liters and above, as well as sports utility vehicles, the Commerce Ministry said, issuing a long list of incentives and tax breaks it said were granted by the U.S. government and the state of Michigan. (Reuters)

74) Ocidente vê com preocupação influência de emergentes na África

Ocidente vê com preocupação influência da China na África
Deutsche Welle, 6.11.2009

Presidente chinês também está presente ao segundo Fórum da Cooperação África-China (Focac), que acontece no balneário egípcio de Sharm el-Sheikh. Conferência discute progressos das relações sino-africanas.

Além do presidente chinês, Wen Jiabao, e seu homólogo egípcio, Hosni Mubarak, diversos chefes de Estado e governo do continente africano participam neste domingo e segunda-feira (8-9/11) do segundo Fórum da Cooperação África-China (Focac), que deverá aprovar um plano de cooperação bilateral para até 2012.
Em Sharm el-Sheikh, Wen Jiabao anunciou novos empréstimos na ordem de 10 bilhões de dólares (6,7 bilhões de euros) para a África, como também ajuda de 1 bilhão de dólares para empresas de pequeno e médio porte do continente.
Desde meados dos anos 1990, a atuação do Império do Meio no continente africano aumentou constantemente. No ano passado, o comércio bilateral entre a China e a África ultrapassou os 100 bilhões de dólares.
Em troca de matérias-primas e de direitos de exploração, mais de 35 países africanos, principalmente a Nigéria, Angola, Sudão e Etiópia, recebem dinheiro chinês. Em região tão carente de infraestrutura, projetos construtivos de engenheiros chineses, como estradas de ferro e de rodagem, são muito bem-vindos.
Apesar da importância do financiamento chinês para projetos infraestruturais, especialistas internacionais reclamam da falta de transparência em tal cooperação, que não distingue regimes democráticos de ditatoriais.
Interesses econômicos

Para o professor de Estudos Africanos da Universidade de Leipzig, Helmut Asche, os interesses chineses na África são, sobretudo, econômicos, mas não se restringem somente à busca de matérias-primas. "O interesse da China também se dirige ao mercado africano", explicou Asche.
Aparelhos de TV e rádio, calças e camisetas – a China exporta principalmente eletrodomésticos baratos e produtos têxteis para a África. Além disso, firmas chinesas constroem estradas e aeroportos em países africanos. Entre 2004 e 2008, o volume de comércio entre a China e a África aumentou em mais de dez vezes.
Democracia e direitos humanos
No entanto, a China também persegue na África interesses políticos bastante explícitos. Na qualidade de superpotência emergente, Pequim pretende ganhar aliados em grêmios internacionais como as Nações Unidas.
Ao procurar estabelecer pontos comuns entre a China e a África, as lideranças chinesas sempre enfatizam o papel de vítima durante a época colonial no século 19. Por outro lado, temas como democracia e direitos humanos não têm nenhuma importância na cooperação entre a China e os Estados africanos, explicou Denis Tull, especialista do Instituto Alemão de Assuntos Internacionais e Segurança (SWP).
Segundo Tull, isso é algo que, certamente, agrada a muitos governos africanos, principalmente aqueles de orientação autoritária, e que também ajuda a reduzir a pressão exercida por países ocidentais e doadores sobre tais governos.
Reações e críticas

A cooperação com governos ditatoriais é um dos principais pontos da crítica ao engajamento chinês na África. Os governos do Sudão e do Zimbábue estão entre os parceiros africanos da China.
Em meados de outubro último, uma empresa chinesa fechou com a junta militar da Guiné um acordo para a exploração de reservas minerais no valor de 7 bilhões de dólares. Poucas semanas antes, o governo militar do país da África Ocidental fora responsável por uma chacina ao debelar um protesto na capital Conacri.
Denis Tull defende que a China deva ser criticada por tais cooperações. "Tenho a impressão de que o governo chinês está cada vez mais preocupado com sua reputação e que deverá ao menos reagir a críticas, não somente do lado ocidental, mas também do lado africano."
Novos parceiros
Tradicionalmente, nas últimas décadas, os países africanos não tiveram alternativa à cooperação com o Ocidente. Muitos deles se tornaram dependentes política e financeiramente de nações ocidentais, para as quais a África continuou, todavia, o quintal do mundo. Principalmente durante os anos 1990, a África foi um continente desprezado. Por ocasião do genocídio em Ruanda, o mundo fechou os olhos.
Com o progresso dos países emergentes e principalmente da China, novos atores passaram a agir no continente. Isso pode ter, certamente, consequências positivas para a África. Uma nova situação competitiva surge no continente, e ele volta a ser foco da política mundial.
Segundo o africanista Helmut Asche, isso poderia oferecer também novas chances para as países africanos. Eles poderiam, gradualmente, escolher suas parcerias políticas e econômicas. Segundo Asche, no entanto, muitos ainda não entenderam que isso poderá levar a uma perda de influência ocidental.
"O Ocidente ainda não se deu conta de quão abrangente é o desafio resultante do surgimento da China, Índia e Brasil como novos parceiros importantes da África", explicou o africanista.

Autor: Christoph Ricking / Carlos Albuquerque
Revisão: Augusto Valente

© Deutsche Welle

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Comentários de Regina Caldas em 08/11/2009, at 15:10:

O ocidente ignora as guerras, chacinas e doenças na África. Mas...quando a China entra no continente promovendo desenvolvimento, o ocidente grita que os chineses ignoram violações de direitos humanos cometidos pelos africanos...Nada como provar do próprio veneno para espernear....Sds Regina
08.11.2009

Comentarios PRA:
Os criterios, ou valores, de jornalistas, academicos ou politicos ocidentais, tem pouca consistencia para a China, em suas relacoes com a Africa.
No seculo 19, os ocidentais literalmente estupraram a China, exigindo, sob a ameacao de canhoneiras, acordos desiguais, portos livres, zonas extra-territoriais, privilegios exclusivos de ocidentais, com justica propria e tratamento privilegiado, reservado para si zonas imensas da China -- em Hong Kong, em Shanghai e em outros lugares -- com exclusao completa da soberania chinesa dessas zonas ocidentais. Foi mais de um seculo de humilhacao, e de dominacao a ferro e a fogo (como na guerra dos Boxers, por exemplo), que depois foi multiplicado por cem, na invasao e violacao despotica por parte dos japonheses.
Pois bem, os chineses estao apenas propondo aos africanos investimentos exclusivos, em que eles entram com tudo, sobretudo com engenheiros, operarios, cozinheiros e lavanderias, para prestar um servico completo de construcao de ferrovias, portos, obras publicos. Tudo isso a condicao de que eles tenham acesso a materias primas por longos anos a frente. Nada muito diferente do que fizeram os ocidentais entre o final do seculo 19 e o inicio do seculo 20, com a diferenca de que estes muitas vezes escravizaram os africanos, como no Congo Belga. Ou seja, a China reproduz hoje, em carater mais benigno, o modelo ocidental de extracao que foi praticado pelas potencias ocidentais durante um seculo.
Trata-se de uma forma de insercao da Africa na globalizacao. Pode-se ate reclamar da "exploracao", mas se ninguem explorar a Africa, ela simplesmente torna-se irrelevante, até para fins de exploracao capitalista...
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Paulo Roberto de Almeida

Friday, November 6, 2009

73) Falta de inovação ameaça frear a China

Ásia: País busca modelo de desenvolvimento que privilegia tecnologia doméstica, mas tem longo caminho a percorrer
Falta de inovação ameaça frear a China

Dexter Roberts e Pete Engardio, BusinessWeek
Valor Econômico, 06/11/2009, pág. A14

No começo de outubro, durante a parada de comemoração do 60º aniversário da República Popular da China, tanques e mísseis passaram diante da Cidade Proibida e pela avenida Chang'an, em Pequim. Batalhões de soldados desfilaram em passo de ganso em perfeita harmonia. No céu, caças voavam em formação.

Mas logo atrás dessa extravagância militar estavam carros pesados exibindo um lado menos bélico da China, que suas lideranças chamam de "inovações nativas". Em um deles, um microscópio de 2,5 metros de altura, tubos de ensaio gigantes cheios de um líquido azul e um telescópio branco simbolizavam as conquistas científicas e tecnológicas da China. Outro carro tinha uma réplica de um trem-bala e um jato de passageiros, representando as ambições da China na área de transporte. Um carro dedicado às energias renováveis estava cheio de moinhos de vento e plataformas de petróleo, cercado por centenas de trabalhadores do setor de energia com capacetes vermelhos, cada um deles carregando um painel solar.

Em um palco acima do retrato gigante de Mao Tsé-tung no portão da Paz Celestial, o presidente Hu Jintao assistia o desfile. "O povo chinês se ergueu", disse Hu, citando Mao, que disse essas palavras no mesmo lugar 60 anos antes.

Essa sensação de triunfo permeia a China hoje em dia. A rápida recuperação da economia da China continental, depois da explosão da crise financeira mundial, parece ter vingado sua marca de capitalismo liderado pelo Estado. Enquanto o Ocidente luta para se recuperar, a China caminha para crescer 8% este ano, preparando-se para tomar o lugar do Japão de segunda maior economia do mundo - e o da Alemanha de maior exportador. Agora a China continental está entrando em novos setores, anunciando companhias aéreas domésticas, carros elétricos e trens de alta velocidade.

Mas uma investigação das estatísticas e o alarde em relação aos avanços em setores estratégicos mostram que a China não parece estar preparada para ser catapultada a uma posição de liderança econômica mundial. Especialistas familiarizados com as conquistas que os chineses vêm perseguindo ativamente dizem que as tecnologias que as sustentam foram em grande parte desenvolvidas em outros países. Não há a Sony chinesa, uma Toyota ou uma Samsung no horizonte. Embora o pacote de estímulo de US$ 586 bilhões do governo chinês e um aumento de 150% nos empréstimos bancários estejam estimulando um crescimento impressionante, "a questão", segundo Stephen Roach, presidente do conselho de administração do Morgan Stanley na Ásia, "é a qualidade desse crescimento".

Segundo já admitiu o próprio governo, não se pode mais contar com o modelo econômico que conduziu a China por três décadas. A China continental vem prosperando principalmente pelo setor da construção e a exportação de todos os tipos de bens de consumo produzidos em fábricas que aproveitam a mão-de-obra barata; os trabalhadores depositavam suas economias em bancos estatais, que então emprestavam o dinheiro para companhias produzirem mais coisas. Mas o know-how tecnológico e administrativo veio principalmente das multinacionais, e os custos - poluição, deterioração dos serviços sociais e uma diferença enorme entre a população urbana rica e a população rural pobre - são em grande parte ignorados. Esse modelo alimentou um crescimento fenomenal, que Hu e outros chamam de "desequilibrado" e "insustentável".

Portanto, nos últimos anos, o governo chinês vem proclamando uma nova visão econômica. Os principais elementos: as fábricas sujas darão lugar a indústrias preocupadas com energias renováveis e um setor de serviços crescente; os consumidores chineses, em vez dos pressionados americanos e europeus, é que darão sustentação à demanda; e, em vez de produzir produtos copiados que rendem poucos lucros, as companhias chinesas deverão criar produtos inovadores baseados em tecnologias desenvolvidas no país.

Mas enquanto o presidente dos EUA, Barack Obama, se prepara para sua primeira visita à China, no dia 15, alguns economistas estão adotando uma postura cética em relação à evolução da China. Embora o governo tenha honrado muitos dos compromissos de abertura de mercado que fez para poder entrar para a Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC) em 2001, reformas prometidas, como a permissão de mais investimentos estrangeiros em telecomunicações e serviços financeiros, estão paralisadas. Nos últimos três anos, um fluxo constante de diretivas emitidas por uma série de ministérios e pela Comissão Nacional de Desenvolvimento e Reforma (CNDR) vêm enfatizando o controle que o estado exerce sobre a economia. Em junho, por exemplo, a comissão ordenou que sempre que possível apenas os produtos fabricados por companhias de controle chinês sejam usados nos projetos bancados pelo governo.

É fácil perceber o reaparecimento do Estado. Segundo estimativa do Standard Chartered Bank, a ampla maioria dos novos empréstimos está sendo direcionada para empresas controladas pelo governo, por exemplo, enquanto que menos de 20% acabam nas mãos de pequenas e médias empresas, que normalmente são privadas. E, em setores estratégicos, como o da fabricação de turbinas eólicas e o de usinas nucleares, o governo chinês está favorecendo suas grandes empresas e tentando reduzir gradualmente a participação das companhias estrangeiras. "Eles estão recolhendo o tapete vermelho", afirma Joerg Wuttke, presidente da Câmara Europeia na China, que recentemente divulgou um relatório de 584 páginas que afirma que a China vem pisando no freio na abertura de sua economia. "O foco da China parece ter mudado da aceleração das reformas de mercado para um modelo mais controlado pelo Estado. Isso é muito preocupante", afirma um funcionário de uma associação de classe dos Estados Unidos.

Além de agravar os atritos comerciais, o renovado pendor do Partido Comunista por controlar tudo poderá minar a competitividade da China nos mercados internacionais. Restringir a capacidade dos estrangeiros de fazer negócios na China tornará a vida mais fácil para as companhias chinesas em casa; o lado ruim é que isso as impedirá de conseguir as habilidades necessárias para serem bem-sucedidas fora da China continental. E canalizar recursos para companhias estatais e insiders deixará os empresários criativos famintos por capital. "O governo quer estimular a inovação e a criação de empregos mas está fazendo o oposto", diz o economista Xu Xiaonian, da China Europe International Business School, de Xangai.

Já há sinais de que as políticas de Pequim estão minando a transição para uma economia mais equilibrada, que possa estimular o crescimento em todas as partes do mundo. Na última década, os gastos do consumidor - que deveriam ser o principal suporte da economia chinesa - caíram de 45% do PIB para 35%. O Morgan Stanley estima que 88% do crescimento do PIB deste ano virá da fonte usual: investimentos em infraestrutura, imóveis e um número ainda maior de linhas de produção. Nos últimos dois anos, a capacidade de produção da aço da China cresceu em um terço e a capacidade ociosa da China continental este ano será quase igual à produção de aço combinada de EUA e Japão. "Na verdade, vimos um recuo para a velha fórmula de apoio em grande escala à produção industrial e às exportações", diz David Hoffman, diretor-gerente da China para o Conference Board.

Para ter uma ideia do que pode estar pela frente se a China não conseguir transformar sua economia, é só passar pela cidade de Dongguan. As milhares de fábricas localizadas no centro industrial do delta do rio Pérola produzem TVs, móveis, brinquedos e milhares de outros produtos para os consumidores de todas as partes do mundo. Mas, com a queda das exportações, Dongguan está cambaleando. No distrito de Changping, outrora apelidado de "pequena Hong Kong", fábricas fechadas estão cobertas de mato. É claro que a economia de da Província de Guangdong caminha para um crescimento de 9% este ano, mas isso vai ocorrer principalmente por causa dos enormes gastos do governo com obras públicas, como a ampliação de um aeroporto e a construção de uma usina nuclear.

Em outros bolsões do país, o governo vêm conseguindo um progresso bem maior rumo à nova visão econômica. A China está promovendo agressivamente a energia eólica, a iluminação mais ambientalmente correta e os três de alta velocidade. Xangai, Pequim e dezenas de outras cidades estão construindo vastas redes subterrâneas para complementar as ferrovias já existentes. Para convencer os cidadãos a gastarem mais e economizarem menos, o governo está ampliando o sistema público de saúde e subsidiando pequenos automóveis e utensílios elétricos. Milhões de pequenas empresas privadas estão surgindo e grandes empresas estatais que proporcionavam benefícios "do berço ao túmulo" estão sendo enxugadas. Cidades e províncias estão aumentando os gastos com pesquisa, reciclando trabalhadores e cortejando investimentos em novos setores, como o de biotecnologia, que está atraindo cientistas chineses que trabalhavam nos EUA.

Entretanto, a China tem um longo caminho a percorrer em inovação. O continente aumentou dramaticamente os gastos com pesquisas e exibe o maior número de profissionais formados em ciências e engenharia. Mas além de jogos da internet, o país cria poucos produtos inovadores, graças em grande medida ao problema perene da pirataria desenfreada. No ano passado, a China exportou US$ 416 bilhões em produtos de alta tecnologia. Mas, subtraindo as operações da China continental das atividades das empresas de Taiwan que operam sob contrato e as contribuições de empresas como a Nokia, Samsung e Hewlett-Packard (HP), a China vira um peso-leve em produtos eletrônicos. Além da cerveja Tsingtao e dos refrigeradores baratos Haier, "a China tem presença nula nos EUA", afirma Kenneth J. DeWoskin, diretor do China Research & Insight Centre da Deloitte & Touche. Em vez disso, a maior parte das companhias da China continental explora tecnologias já existentes e competem com os grandes volumes e custos baixos nos mercados de commodities.

Tome como exemplo os automóveis. Durante décadas, o governo tentou estimular o setor. Mas Volkswagen (VW), Toyota, Buick e outras marcas estrangeiras dominam a produção de sedãs de médio porte e de utilitários esportivos (SUVs). Montadoras domésticas como a BYD Auto, a Geely e a Chery vêm prosperando com o desenvolvimento de subcompactos, vendidos por até US$ 4,4 mil. Elas agora são a maior esperança da China no segmento de veículos elétricos e híbridos. Enquanto isso, o governo está aumentou seu apoio. Para atender uma meta de produzir 500 mil desses veículos até 2011, o Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia pretende colocar 60 mil táxis e ônibus elétricos nas ruas e oferecer subsídios para os compradores.

A BYD Auto vem fazendo mais "barulho". A companhia de Shenzhen espera vender este ano 400 mil automóveis e sua controladora é uma das maiores produtoras de baterias de íons de lítio para celulares, PCs e outros aparelhos do mundo. No ano que vem ela pretende lançar nos EUA o e6, um veículo elétrico para cinco passageiros que pode ser recarregado na tomada e segundo a companhia terá uma autonomia de 398 quilômetros. O preço da ação da BYD subiu tanto que o famoso investidor americano Warren Buffett já lucrou mais de US$ 1 bilhão com a participação de 10% que tem na companhia. A BYD promete ser a maior fabricante de automóveis da China até 2015 e superar a Toyota como a maior marca até 2025, produzindo 10 milhões de veículos por ano - 50% para exportar.

A BYD tem um longo caminho a percorrer. Este ano, ela terá sorte de conseguir igualar as exportações recordes de 8 mil veículos do ano passado, todos eles vendidos na Rússia e países em desenvolvimento da África e América Latina. Ela afirma que entregou apenas cem de seus híbridos "plug-in" F3DM, vendidos a US$ 22 mil, na China este ano - algo muito distante da meta de vendas de 4 mil unidades. A maior vantagem da BYD? Não é o design, a tecnologia de ponta nem as técnicas modernas de fabricação. É uma bateria bem convencional que a BYD consegue produzir bem barato. "Fabricar produtos baratos é a chave para o desenvolvimento da indústria dos carros elétricos", afirma Henry Z. Li, gerente-geral de vendas internacionais da BYD.

A BYD recusou um pedido para um visita às suas fábricas, mas aqueles que já estiveram nelas afirmam que suas baterias e motores elétricos são montados a mão e linhas de montagem, por trabalhadores de uniforme azul, e não por robôs, algo que já se tornou um padrão no setor. A dúvida é a capacidade da BYD ou de outras montadoras chinesas de atenderem os rígidos padrões de segurança da União Europeia e dos EUA. "Em mercados maduros, as barreiras são bastante claras e os padrões muito elevados", diz Yale Zhang, diretor da consultoria CSM.

"Desmonte" outros sucessos bastante elogiados da inovação nativa e você verá que há pouca coisa de chinesa neles. O governo há muito tempo deseja ter sua própria indústria aeronáutica e sua primeira oferta - um jato de passageiros com 90 assentos chamado ARJ21 - deverá chegar ao mercado no ano que vem. Em seguida, será a vez do C919, um avião para trajetos médios com até 190 assentos, que a estatal Commercial Aircraft Corp. of China (Comac) anunciou em de setembro. O avião, cujo início de entregas está previsto para 2016, pretende competir diretamente com a Boeing e a Airbus.

Especialistas ocidentais familiarizados com os aviões da Comac afirmam que eles são baseados em aviões mais antigos projetados pela McDonnell Douglas há duas décadas, antes de a companhia americana ter sido adquirida pela Boeing. Enquanto isso, as turbinas e outros sistemas importantes do ARJ21 são fornecidos por fabricantes ocidentais como a Honeywell, General Electric e Rockwell Collins. "A China quer ser autossuficiente", afirma Nathan K. Smith, analista da consultoria Frost & Sullivan. "Mas ela não tem capacidade para desenvolver esses aviões sem a tecnologia ocidental." As possibilidades da Comac competir com a Boeing e a Airbus fora da China, mesmo daqui a duas décadas, "são um tiro no escuro", afirma Smith.

Algumas políticas industriais chinesas fracassaram. Por exemplo, o governo há muito tempo vê a fabricação de semicondutores como um setor importante e oito novas fábricas de placas de silício - algumas bastante subsidiadas - foram construídas desde 2005. O objetivo era começar a competir com as fábricas de baixos custos que operam sob empreitada para firmas estrangeiras de projetos de chips. Mas as fábricas de placas de silício da China dependem de tecnologias que estão pelo menos duas gerações atrás das que estão sendo usadas por Taiwan, EUA, Japão e Coreia do Sul, e poucas são lucrativas. No pior momento da recessão, no primeiro trimestre, 60% da capacidade de produção da China estava ociosa. Mas, com as fábricas de placas de silício da próxima geração custando no mínimo US$ 3 bilhões, uma grande crise se aproxima para as fábricas chinesas, segundo Len Jelinek, analista da consultoria iSuppli. "A maior parte das companhias chinesas não tem a tecnologia e o dinheiro necessários para investir em pesquisa e desenvolvimento e assim permanecer no jogo", acredita ele.

Em razão dos muitos sinais de progresso da China, é fácil esquecer que ela continua sendo uma economia subdesenvolvida que enfrenta desafios enormes. Sim, ela possui uma população imensa e jovem, empresários e cientistas talentosos, um governo ambicioso - e muito dinheiro. Portanto, é provável que o governo acerte na fórmula algum dia. Mas as reformas econômicas da China já levam três décadas. Isso é bem mais que o tempo que Mao Tsé-tung e seus seguidores levara para impor sua marca extrema de socialismo. "O Japão e a Coreia do Sul levaram 30 anos para realizarem uma transformação parecida" para uma economia conduzida pela inovação, pelos gastos do consumidor e pelos serviços, diz Ding Li, economista da Academia de Ciências Sociais de Guangdong. "Nossas expectativas não podem ser altas demais."

(Copyright© 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.)

Thursday, November 5, 2009

72) Books on Central Asia and Mongol China

From Marx to Mohammed
By David Pilling
Financial Times, October 24 2009

Books reviews:

Out of Steppe: The Lost Peoples of Central Asia
By Daniel Metcalfe
Hutchinson £18.99, 241 pages

Inside Central Asia
By Dilip Hiro
Overlook Duckworth £25, 448 pages

In the Bloody Footsteps of Ghengis Khan
By Jeffrey Tayler
JR Books £17.99, 306 pages

Xanadu: Marco Polo and Europe's Discovery of the East
By John Man
Bantam Press £20, 312 pages

Marco Polo's account of his 13th-century journey from Venice to Xanadu, the summer palace of Kublai Khan, is so sketchy that there is still an active academic debate about whether the world's most famous travel writer ever made it to the Middle Kingdom at all. Though he must have followed the Great Wall of China for 1,500 miles , the Venetian merchant fails to mention it even once. His European audience knew little or nothing about China. Yet, after 24 years away, he didn't see fit to relate what, on the face of it, were some of the Middle Kingdom's stand-out characteristics: tea-drinking, foot-binding and calligraphy.

John Man's book, Xanadu, doesn't take seriously the contention that Polo may have invented his journey along the Silk Road and through central Asia to China. For the author, a historian and travel writer who specialises in Mongolia, there is detail in the Venetian's travels that could only have been discovered first-hand. In Yunnan, for example, near today's Burmese border, Polo encounters men who take to their bed for 40 days after their wives give birth, a practice known as "sympathetic pregnancy". Polo recounts numerous other phenomena, quite unknown and fantastical to Europeans of the time, subsequently confirmed by scholars from both Chinese and Persian texts. This, remember, was an era when Europeans thought elephants were creatures with five legs.

More than 700 years later, some regions that Polo wrote about have become familiar while others remain obscure. China has joined the World Trade Organisation and successfully hosted last year's Olympics. The eastern seaboard is no longer enveloped in mystery. But areas of China's interior, such as the Taklamakan desert in Xinjiang province, remain virtually unknown to outsiders - the desert is so hostile it's translated as, "You won't come out if you go in". Also little-known are other parts of what is loosely defined as central Asia, which stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west, along the old Silk Road. It incorporates former nomadic lands crisscrossed by Mongolian, Turkik, Persian and other peoples and includes the five "stan" republics of the former Soviet Union.

Dilip Hiro's Inside Central Asia extends the definition to Turkey and Iran. Daniel Metcalfe, the brash young traveller of Out of Steppe, a speaker of Persian, Swedish and Russian who never ventures forth without his mandolin (or his sense of humour), strays into Afghanistan to meet the Hazaras, a minority group of probable Mongolian descent, and stretches the central Asian concept even further.

Each of these books helps to bring the region into sharper focus. Three - Out of Steppe, In the Bloody Footsteps of Ghengis Khan and Xanadu - are travelogues that trace the progress of historical figures or tribes, throwing light on both the ancient and modern. Inside Central Asia is a more straightforward political and social history. For readers who still get their "stans" mixed up and don't know their inner Mongolia from their outer one, all these accounts have much to offer.

These volumes focus on a region that deserves to be better known. But they also bring out themes too pressing to ignore. Central Asia is now the focus of a new "Great Game" as Russia, China and the US vie for a strategic foothold, partly with a view to the war in Afghanistan and partly because of the huge oil, gas and other mineral resources with which the region is blessed (or cursed). Hardly a week passes without Beijing extending a loan to one of the "stans" or buying into companies that control its subterranean riches.

There are social and ethnic tensions too. Xinjiang province in western China has become a flashpoint, home to a Muslim Uighur minority whose lands once stretched into middle Asia. In July, tensions between the Uighur and the Han Chinese left nearly 200 people dead; this month, Beijing handed down the death sentence to six of those it held responsible. An al-Qaeda leader recently called for jihad against Beijing, saying Turkic Muslims were being repressed. He predicted that, like the USSR, China would soon shatter into pieces.

The ebb and flow of religion in a region bookended by modern history's two most formidable atheist states, China and the Soviet Union, is best captured in the no-nonsense Inside Central Asia. Hiro has written extensively on the twin pull of Marx and Mohammed and produces a vivid account of the early Soviet years when women were encouraged to burn their veils in public and bride purchases were banned.

The Soviets temporarily succeeded in damping religious sentiment but by 1987, notes Hiro, a poll of undergraduates with a Muslim background at Tashkent university showed that only 7 per cent described themselves as atheist. There was an upsurge of men with beards and women with headscarves as religion became a form of political dissent. When the Soviet Union fell apart, even leaders such as President Karimov, a brutal adversary of Islamic militants, visited Mecca and restored his first name to Islam. Only after the terrorist attacks of 9/11, did he, like other regional leaders, make airspace and military bases available to the Pentagon for its war against Islamist extremism. The Americans were subsequently expelled.

The tensions of Islam in an atheist land are particularly acute in the so-called autonomous region of Xinjiang, which bubbled over so violently this summer. The brooding resentment of Uighurs living in what many consider an alien culture, despite more than 2,000 years of contact with Han Chinese, is brought out starkly in Jeffrey Tayler's In the Bloody Footsteps of Genghis Khan. Another multilinguist and a Moscow-based journalist, Tayler seeks out the opinions of ordinary Uighurs in Kashgar and Urumqi. One person he meets wants the US to "liberate us, just like you liberated Iraq" and exhorts Washington to bomb Beijing. Even some of the less extreme Muslims he encounters profess a visceral dislike of Chinese food, the Chinese language and Chinese people.

Another theme that emerges from all four books is the abiding endurance, even appeal, of authoritarianism. Polo was a great admirer of Genghis Khan, who in the early 13th century used terror and brute force to create the biggest contiguous empire in human history. Like modern Mongolian admirers of their national hero, Polo played down stories of Genghis Khan's butchery, emphasising instead his achievements in bringing order (and the world's first postal service) to the Silk Road. "Wherever he went, he found the people disposed to submit to him and to esteem themselves happy when admitted to his protection and favour," he writes.

Such attitudes prevail even today. Tayler recounts how he balked at the invitation from his Mongolian guide to kneel in prayer before an altar dedicated to Khan. His guide, for whom Khan was a great and gentle liberator, remonstrates: "He was not only a warrior. He was a poet too. He wanted people to treat each other kindly. He was, most of all, against rudeness."

The acceptance of, even outright support for, authoritarian leaders is something Tayler encounters throughout his travels from Russia's Red Square to China's Tiananmen. In Makhachkala, in the Russian republic of Dagestan, he finds nothing but admiration for Russia's latest strongman. "Putin's great," one drinking companion tells him. "He's ordered society. Call it authoritarianism, KGB rule, who cares? What matters is that people get their pensions on time and workers get their salaries. He has put an end to the chaos of the Yeltsin years." In Beijing, while lining up at the mausoleum of Mao Zedong, Tayler concludes: "That crowds throng to his embalmed body even now tells us that the future of this country probably does not belong to liberal reforms, that not all people march when freedom calls, that atrocities can be suffered and forgotten." The former Soviet republics, too, have fallen prey to authoritarianism. Since it declared independence in 1991, Uzbekistan has been led by Islam Karimov, a former Communist party official whose public statements include: "I am ready to rip off the heads of 200 people, to sacrifice their lives, in order to save peace and calm in the republic." Criticised for rigging elections and smothering a free press, those around President Karimov have been accused of widespread human rights abuses, including boiling political enemies to death. Saparmurat Niyazov, president for life of neighbouring Turkmenistan until he died in 2006, was such a one-man band that he renamed the month of January after himself and, says Metcalfe, changed the word for bread to his mother's name.

Of the four books, the most entertaining is by the youngest author. Fresh, witty, and full of quirky detail, Metcalfe's Out of Steppe is pleasantly uninhibited. His first taste of Uzbekistan takes place in Nukus, a grim former Soviet industrial city, of which he writes: "The name alone recalled nasal effluent and the arms race."

Yet the book is also a serious, sometimes moving, account of environmental degradation, political repression and social isolation. It is organised around a search for six minorities including the Jews of Bukhara, the Germans of Kazakhstan (brutally persecuted on trumped-up grounds of Fascist links), and the inhabitants of Uzbekistan's Karakalpak republic, whose livelihood was destroyed by a mad Soviet experiment to raise cotton production. This journey may not have you booking your next holiday to Kyrgyzstan or Turkmenistan, but it brings the region into colourful focus.

Tayler is also strong on the social dislocation felt by people in parts of central Asia and Xinjiang. That contrasts with the optimism and energy he encounters in China, where he finds political discontent melts away under the warmth of economic progress. The book, an odd fusion of serious analysis and personal anecdote, ranges unpredictably from historical sweep to chance encounters in trains and discos. I lost count of how many times our author spies a "Rubenesque figure" or the "fresh and svelte" body of a taxi driver. Are there no male drivers in these parts? He spends more time than one would have imagined strictly necessary at central Asian strip joints and Chinese nightclubs replete with "statuesque and lithe, glabrous-skinned" girls in black bikinis. Sometimes gratuitous, some of the encounters nevertheless manage to be genuinely revealing about age-old prejudices and changing norms.

Man's Xanadu is the odd one out in that, like Polo, its author spends more time in China than in central Asia, particularly in Xanadu itself, now called Shangdu, the northern capital immortalised by Coleridge. The book, though erudite, comes across as the account of a slight eccentric. Trying to conjure an image of Kublai Khan's pleasure dome, a sort of super Mongolian tent, the author gets a friend of his architect-son to help him erect a modern-day approximation. There is even a guide for how to build one yourself. Perhaps necessarily, given Polo's sketchy accounts, the book is given to lengthy speculation - on the origins of a headdress Polo brought back to Venice, for example. The resulting book is almost as much about the author as about Polo or the region.

The most straightforward of the four is Hiro's Inside Central Asia, a detailed and nuanced overview. The book is thorough and diligent, but the country chapters - as opposed to the thematic introduction and conclusion - plod chronologically. Still, it is the most comprehensive of the four and most deliberately brings out themes of ethnic tensions, religious intolerance and struggle for political identity. For many, these lands at the crossroads of the Eurasian continent, between the splintered Soviet empire and the rising Chinese one, remain a mystery. These books, Hiro's particularly, help put that right. They reveal what we should have already known: that the grand themes and tragedies of the lands Marco Polo explored and Genghis Khan conquered so long ago are mirror images of our own.

David Pilling is the FT's Asia managing editor
Copyright The Financial Times Limited 2009.

Wednesday, November 4, 2009

71) Mickey Mouse mandarim: Disney Park in Shanghai

China Approves Disney Theme Park in Shanghai
By BROOKS BARNES
The New York Times, November 3, 2009

LOS ANGELES — After a courtship of about 20 years, the Walt Disney Company has won approval from the central government of China to build a Disneyland-style theme park in Shanghai, Robert A. Iger, Disney’s chief executive, said Tuesday.

The agreement for a Shanghai Disneyland is a landmark deal that carries enormous cultural and financial implications. Analysts estimate the initial park — not including hotels and resort infrastructure — will cost $3.5 billion, making it one of the largest-ever foreign investments in China.

The initial resort, with a mix of shopping areas, hotels and a Magic Kingdom-style theme park, will sprawl across 1,000 acres of the city’s Pudong district — with the theme park occupying about 100 of those acres. It would be a little bigger than Disneyland in Anaheim, Calif., and on par with the parks in Paris and Tokyo. It is expected to open in five or six years.

Disney’s plans are ambitious: If further development of the resort happens as expected over the coming decades — still a big if — it will encompass more than 1,700 acres and have a capacity rivaling Disney World in Florida, which attracts about 45 million annual visitors.

The company’s goal is to create an engine that will drive demand among China’s 1.3 billion residents for other Disney products, from video games to Broadway-style shows to DVDs. Disney typically relies on the creation of new Disney TV channels to pump its brand abroad, but China’s limits on foreign media have made that impossible. The approval, notably, did not come with concessions from China on the television front.

Mr. Iger called the approval “a very significant milestone” in a statement, taking care to praise China as “one of the most dynamic, exciting and important countries in the world.” A spokeswoman declined to elaborate on details. Throwing open its doors to such a uniquely American — and permanent — entertainment experience is a milestone for China, which has aggressively protected its culture from Westernization in general and Hollywood in particular. Only 20 non-Chinese films are allowed to be shown in theaters each year, for instance, and those are often edited.

“Disney, perhaps the most iconic American brand of all, is supercharged in this department,” said Orville Schell, director of the Asia Society’s Center on U.S.-China Relations.

It was unclear what convinced China to finally approve the deal after years of off-again, on-again talks. The prospect of creating tens of thousands of jobs at a tough economic moment might have played a role, Mr. Schell and other analysts said.

Others have speculated that the timing involved President Obama’s inaugural visit to China later this month.

Mr. Schell said he saw something more at work. “It’s a signal that now they will tolerate a certain kind of Western investment,” he said.

Disney will own about 40 percent of the Shanghai resort, with the remainder owned by a holding company formed by a consortium of Chinese companies selected by the government, according to people with knowledge of the plan but who were not authorized to speak publicly.

Only the Magic Kingdom-style portion of the project needed Beijing’s approval; Disney will now negotiate with Shanghai authorities on construction plans, but that is considered a matter of process.

Details about rides are still being worked out, but there are to be a smattering of classic attractions and new rides developed specifically for Shanghai, perhaps incorporating Chinese stories and history.

Disney is often accused of force-feeding its products to international markets and thus homogenizing culture. The company’s heavy-handed creation of Disneyland Paris in the early 1990s, for instance, was a public relations disaster; French farmers with pitch forks protested Disney.

But the company, under new leadership since 2005, has worked to erase that imperious reputation by bending to the quirks of local markets and taking on local partners. Where appropriate, it has incorporated local customs; the decision to serve alcohol at Disneyland Paris helped turn that resort into a financial success.

Disney has opened a chain of language schools in Shanghai, taking care to promise that the goal is to teach children to speak English, not to indoctrinate them with Princesses 101. (The company’s characters, however, are very visible at the centers.)

Disney, which already does more business in China than most foreign media companies, has more than 600 employees in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. Merchandise like plush toys and Mickey Mouse apparel is sold at about 6,000 branded locations.

The company delivers about a dozen hours of television programming (“Mickey Mouse Clubhouse”) to local stations each week, and its Broadway unit has toured “The Lion King,” among other shows.

But Disney executives have set a high bar for international growth, saying publicly before the recession that about 50 percent of the company’s annual profit could originate overseas within a few years; now it is about a quarter of revenue and operating income.

The company picked Shanghai largely because of its transportation network; moving guests in and out of a huge resort and feeding them while they are there pose enormous logistical challenges. About 300 millionm potential customers live within two hours of the site, located between the city’s airport and downtown.

“Strategically, we know that our theme parks represent a huge tent pole for the Disney brand wherever we put them,” Jay Rasulo, chairman of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, said in August during an interview about the division’s growth plans.

The announcement marks the culmination of a courtship that began in July, 1990, when Zhu Rongji, then the mayor of Shanghai, made a trip to the original Disneyland in Los Angeles with four other Chinese mayors and came home determined to have a Disneyland in his city. Mr. Zhu rose through the ranks to become premier of China from1998 to 2003 and was a consistent champion of the project, said Michael Rowse, the Hong Kong government official who played a central role in negotiating the establishment of Hong Kong Disneyland, which opened four years ago.

The Shanghai approvals come as Disney works to keep its domestic theme parks healthy amid the global economic downturn. Unlike most theme park operators, Disney has managed to keep attendance high by applying steep discounts to hotel rooms and dining.

Keith Bradsher contributed reporting from Hong Kong.

A version of this article appeared in print on November 4, 2009, on page B1 of the New York edition.

70) Crescimento da China: chegando a cem graus?

Inacreditável: a China não para de crescer!
Onde ela vai parar?
Talvez sendo a maior potência econômica "antes do prazo"...

PIB da China crescerá mais de 10% no quarto trimestre
Beijing, 03/11/2009 (Xinhua)

O crescimento econômico da China ultrapassará 10% no quarto trimestre devido ao aumento nas exportações e consumo doméstico, informou hoje um relatório do Banco da Construção da China.

O relatório anunciou que o Produto Interno Bruto (PIB) do país registrará um crescimento de 8,3% neste ano, em comparação com a previsão de 8,2% do Banco Asiático em setembro e 8,1% de HSBC nesta semana.

Com a recuperação econômica, a confiança de invesitidors e consumidores aumentará no quarto trimestre, o que reforçará a restauração da economia.

O Departamento Nacional de Estatísticas revelou na semana passada que o Índice de Gerentes de Compras (PMI, sigla em inglês) da nação atingiu 55,2 em outubro, um crescimento de 0,9 ponto percentual em relação ao mês passado, o que mostra a tendência de crescimento da economia.

Como os países desenvolvidos apresentaram mais sinais de recuperação, as exportações chinesas cresceram com um saldo comercial esperado de US$ 250 bilhões neste ano, indicou o relatório.

O governo deve manter as políticas monetárias relativamente livres e evitar a retirada das medidas de estímulo, disse.

Tuesday, November 3, 2009

69) Nuclear China: well, sort of...

China alcançará 70 gigawatts de energia nuclear em 2020
Pequim, 03/11/2009 (Agencia EFE)

A capacidade de energia nuclear instalada na China alcançará os 70 gigawatts em 2020, o que supõe um aumento de 75% em relação ao objetivo inicial do Governo, informou hoje a agência oficial de notícias, "Xinhua".

"Atualmente o país tem 11 reatores de energia nuclear de 9,08 gigawatts e espera-se que aumente até 70 gigawatts em 2020", apontou Pan Ziqiang, diretor do Comitê de Ciência e Tecnologia da Corporação Nacional Nuclear da China.

O gigante asiático pretende alcançar 200 gigawatts em 2030 e 400 gigawatts em 2050, acrescentou Pan.

Já Zhang Guobao, vice-ministro a cargo da Comissão Nacional de Desenvolvimento e Reforma, disse que "promover o desenvolvimento de energia nuclear é um dos objetivos do país para conseguir a reestruturação energética, no contexto da preocupação mundial sobre a redução de gases do efeito estufa".

Por outro lado, Zhang anunciou este ano um ambicioso plano previsto por Pequim ao informar que em 20 anos China quer contar com 104 reatores nucleares, o mesmo número que tem atualmente os EUA.

Atualmente a China sofre uma alta dependência de carvão, que fornece dois terços do consumo total de energia do país.
EFE

68) China Program of the Carnegie Endowment - in Chinese

Well, I do not (yet) understand chinese, but suppose it is a high quality seminar with American scholars and their Chinese colleagues.
All the best...

卡内基中国透视
Carnegie China Insight Monthly
2009 年 9-10 月第 9期 , 总第 54 期
September - October 2009, Volume 9, Issue 54
主编: 王雅平
Editor: Yaping Wang

目录 CONTENT

热点争鸣 Opinion and Debate

9月24日,联合国安理会在纽约联合国总部举行“核不扩散与核裁军问题”峰会。第二天在匹兹堡举行的原为应对全球金融危机的二十国集团峰会也因伊朗另一处核设施的被发现,而向核不扩散问题“转偏”。加之10月初温家宝总理访问朝鲜,一时间全球焦点尽集伊朗与朝鲜的核问题。

《卡内基中国透视》采访了中国、伊朗与核不扩散方面的四位专家,就伊朗与朝鲜核问题的现状、中美两国在伊朗与朝鲜核问题上的立场的异同进行了讨论。这四位专家分别是卡内基国际和平基金会研究副主席、东北亚问题专家包道格(Douglas H. Paal),卡内基研究员、伊朗问题专家卡利姆·萨迪加布(Karim Sadjadpour),卡内基研究员、核不扩散与裁军问题专家詹姆斯·埃克顿(James M. Acton),及卡内基高级研究员、核不扩散与军控、安全问题专家莎朗·斯科索尼(Sharon Squassoni)。

卡内基中文网最新 What's New on Carnegie ChinaNet

《国际石油经济月刊》:《中美应对气候变化的合作面临历史新机遇——访钱德瑞(William Chandler)、崔成、张中祥、周琪》
迈克尔·佩蒂斯(Michael Pettis):《消费与就业》
托马斯·卡罗瑟斯 (Thomas Carothers):《美国总统奥巴马获诺贝尔和平奖的意义》
包道格(Douglas H. Paal):《我们的关系是重要的,但并不是排他的》
学者文摘 Scholarly Publications

《外交》杂志:《美元的困境——世界头号货币面临挑战》
《外交》杂志:《北约的日程表——迈向全球安全网》
《远东经济观察》:《北京的私人股权投资基金改革》
《外交政策》:《恶魔的粪便——产油国能避免“资源诅咒”吗?》
《外交政策》:《在自然中寻求共同利益》
《外交政策》:《绿色世界就意味着一个更安全的世界吗?》
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热点争鸣 Opinion and Debate

双国记:中美两国在朝鲜核问题与伊朗核问题上的战略异同
A Tale of Two Countries - Differing Priorities between China and the U.S. on North Korea and Iran's Nuclear Ambitions
(王雅平)
国际核不扩散领域的两大问题——朝鲜核问题与伊朗核问题,始终是人们关注的焦点。9月24日,联合国安理会在纽约联合国总部举行“核不扩散与核裁军问题”峰会。胡锦涛主席与美国总统奥巴马出席了该会议。第二天,两国最高领导人转战匹兹堡,参加原为全力应对全球金融危机而举行的二十国集团峰会。峰会期间伊朗向国际原子能机构承认了其另一处核设施的存在,掀起不小的风波,使得二十国集团峰会的议题又转向核不扩散。朝鲜在今年5月再次进行核试验以来也是大事小事不断。随着10月初温家宝总理访问朝鲜,一时间全球焦点尽集伊朗与朝鲜的核问题。

《卡内基中国透视》采访了中国、伊朗与核不扩散方面的四位专家,就伊朗与朝鲜核问题的现状、中美两国在伊朗与朝鲜核问题上的立场的异同进行了讨论。这四位专家分别是卡内基国际和平基金会研究副主席、东北亚问题专家包道格(Douglas H. Paal),卡内基研究员、伊朗问题专家卡利姆·萨迪加布(Karim Sadjadpour),卡内基研究员、核不扩散与裁军问题专家詹姆斯·埃克顿(James M. Acton),及卡内基高级研究员、核不扩散与军控、安全问题专家莎朗·斯科索尼(Sharon Squassoni)。

朝伊核现状

核物理学家出身的詹姆斯·埃克顿介绍了朝鲜与伊朗核技术的发展程度。他解释道,发展核武器需要完成两个步骤。第一步是铀浓缩与钚分离;第二步是核技术的武器应用。朝鲜已经掌握了制造基本核武器的技术,虽然技术水平可能还很低,但“足够毁掉你一天的心情”。伊朗已经能够生产5%左右浓度的铀,距离制造核武器所需的铀浓度(80%到90%以上)还存在一定差距,但“已不存在实质意义上的技术障碍”。此外,“伊朗在核技术的武器化上似乎也已经起步。至于多久能够制造出核武器,便不得而知。”

因此,朝鲜核问题的实质是如何令已经拥有核武器的朝鲜解除核武器;伊朗核问题的实质则是如何使尚未拥有核武器、但距拥核不远的伊朗放弃其发展核武器的努力。

中国在朝伊核问题上的利益权衡与影响力

朝鲜与伊朗在世界地缘政治与安全格局中都占据重要位置。朝鲜控制着朝鲜海、日本海与中国东海向西北太平洋的战略通道,在中国军事战略史上历来被认为是位于中国东北面的一道军事屏障与缓冲带。伊朗则横亘于中亚、中东与南亚之间,连接中、俄、欧三大势力板块,扼守海湾石油运输通道霍尔木兹海峡。两国的核问题都与各自地区的和平稳定直接相关。

在伊朗核问题上,中国与伊朗的贸易关系尤其是石油贸易关系决定了中国的政策底线。埃克顿指出,伊朗是石油出口大国,中国是石油进口大国。中国的经济发展依赖廉价且供给稳定的石油资源。“中国不情愿制裁伊朗,一方面是由于中国对伊朗石油产业的投资在不断增加,一方面也是由于伊朗控制着中国对世界油价的这根敏感神经。”包道格指出,中国与伊朗的石油协议实际上是为中国在未来获取伊朗的石油资源占取有利地位。因此,伊朗在一定程度上被国际社会孤立却又不完全孤立,对中国是有好处的。萨迪加布则比较了中国与俄罗斯的不同立场。他认为,中国与俄罗斯的立场不同——伊朗是俄罗斯石油在欧洲市场上的潜在竞争对手,但中国却是伊朗石油的大买家。美国试图通过将中国的石油需求转移到其他阿拉伯国家来拉拢中国,使中国在伊朗核问题上与美国“统一战线”。“这种做法可能会有成效,但一个核伊朗对中国的威胁远比不上它对欧美的威胁。”

此外,中国在核不扩散上的立场也是决定中国在伊朗核问题上根本立场的重要因素。埃克顿指出,历史上中国对核扩散的看法并不是完全负面的。发展核武器也曾一度被认为是第三世界国家平衡“美苏霸权”的杀手锏。“中国在核不扩散上的立场正在演变,但演变的速度不及伊朗核危机展开的速度。”“中国目前致力于核不扩散事业的决心还不足以使其牺牲其在石油上的根本利益。”

第三,中国对制裁手段本身的态度也影响了中国在伊朗核问题上的立场。中国曾经是西方国家制裁的对象。包道格说,“中国不支持国际制裁措施的立场有其历史根源。这虽然不是它的底线,但至少可以作为一个说辞。”

在以上决定中国对伊朗核问题的政策立场的众因素中,后两点同样适用于朝鲜。在朝核问题上,中国的底线是保持朝鲜政局的稳定。包道格分析道,“中国对朝鲜有着举足轻重的影响。但中国不愿动用这个影响力,因为在一个‘崩溃的朝鲜’和一个‘核朝鲜’之间,前者对中国的代价更大。中国不愿意为实现一个‘无核’的朝鲜而冒造成朝鲜政权崩溃的风险。”“温家宝总理访问朝鲜,似乎意在抓住朝鲜近来略为软化的外交立场,进一步缓和朝鲜与国际社会的对峙,为把朝鲜拉回到谈判桌做铺垫。”

至于中国对伊朗的影响力,萨迪加布指出,虽然尚比不上中国对朝鲜的影响力大,但随着中国与伊朗在经济、战略与军事上联系的加强,中国对伊朗的影响力已大大超出十到十五年前的水平。“关键在于中国愿不愿意使用这个影响力。”他认为除非伊朗做出“过分”、“过激”的举动,中国不会支持更多的对伊制裁措施。

包道格与埃克顿都认为,中国的立场在未来不会有根本性改变。埃克顿总结中国过去的立场模式是总体上反对制裁,但在伊朗行为过激的时候也会支持并遵从联合国安理会的决议,虽然制裁力度较为缓和。

朝伊核问题上的中美合作

埃克顿指出,一致的国际压力是迫使伊朗做出让步的有效办法;中国对待国际制裁的立场是美国在应对伊朗核问题上的主要烦恼之一。包道格分析认为,伊朗的核发展计划有可能破坏整个海湾地区的稳定,从而影响海湾地区的整体产油量。“因此,遏制伊朗的核计划本来是符合中国石油需求的根本利益的,只是中国把赌注放在与伊朗达成特别协定而非整个海湾地区的更大的石油供给市场上。”包道格建议,西方国家应与中国共同致力于寻求一个既满足中国石油需求又实现中国对伊制裁的平衡协议。“只是这样的对话机制还没有启动。”

在朝鲜核问题上,斯科索尼看到,中国和美国的参与都是至关重要的。“中国对朝鲜有着毋庸置疑的关键影响力;美国则有着帮助塑成未来东亚地区安全格局的力量。”对于朝鲜半岛未来的命运,中美两国的共同参与与“经营”是符合两国共同的利益的。包道格建议,中美两国领导人应对朝鲜半岛的未来进行坦诚对话。关于在未来可能出现的朝鲜难民问题和朝鲜半岛驻军问题,美国能够或不能做出哪些承诺,中美领导人应该进行诚恳的沟通。

伊朗与朝鲜的角度

“孤立战略对朝鲜也许没有作用,”包道格分析说,“但它对伊朗却应该很有效。”“因为伊朗在邻国有移民、在巴以和平进程中有利益,同时也有上升成为波斯湾地区强国的野心。”

萨迪加布指出,伊朗把中国看作是它的“完美的战略伙伴”,“因为中国不会对伊朗的人权问题指手画脚;中国也不会针对伊朗大选干涉伊朗内政;中国与伊朗交往的底线很清晰,就是与伊朗的战略与经济关系。”

“朝鲜则希望在去核化的过程中(无论会不会真正达成最终的去核化)争取最大的好处,”包道格如是说。“它之所以更倾向于与美国进行双边谈判而非六方会谈,原因就在于与美国谈判能够实现朝鲜利益的最大化,而六方会谈则对朝鲜要求较多、好处较少。”朝鲜想要美国放弃与韩国的盟友关系,主持朝鲜与韩国达成战后真正的和平条约,实现美朝两国关系的正常化,以及保障朝鲜所需的贸易往来。在这样的基础上,朝鲜才会考虑去核。

双国记

在朝鲜与伊朗核问题上,中美两国的期望有着很大不同。包道格说:“虽然我们都在谈论核不扩散问题,但我们就伊、朝两国在其各自地区所扮演的最终角色上有着不同的认识和战略目标。”“一方面,中国希望保住朝鲜,而美国则希望看到朝鲜半岛的统一;另一方面,中国希望将伊朗牵制美国注意力的作用继续保持下去。”“美国要么说服中国把核不扩散作为中国最大的利益;要么就得接受中国‘不纯粹式的’核不扩散路线,而那必将限制中美关系的紧密程度。”

斯科索尼指出,朝鲜核问题与伊朗核问题虽处于世界地图的两端,但两者之间却存在着互动关系。“一旦伊朗的铀浓缩行动被西方国家所接受,朝鲜就会‘有理由’要求受到同样的‘宽待’。同样道理,如果朝鲜的去核化得以实现,那么我们也有理由对伊朗核问题的和平解决抱以更加乐观的态度。”

埃克顿指出,核不扩散实际上包含两个不同的任务——一是说服、确保无核国家不发展核武器,二是处理已经发展核武器的国家。第二个任务不仅比第一个任务更困难,而且风险更大。“从处理朝鲜和伊朗的核问题中,我们得出一个教训,就是我们——特别是美国——通常过于重视第二个任务而忽视了第一个任务的紧要性,重视‘控制’而疏于‘防范’。这是亡羊补牢之举,我们应当选择更明智的未雨绸缪。”

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学者文摘 Scholarly Publications

《美元的困境——世界头号货币面临挑战》
Barry Eichengreen, “The Dollar Dilemma ¨C The World’s Top Currency Faces Competition,” Foreign Affairs, September / October 2009
众多学者认为,美元作为国际货币的地位已经在当前的经济危机中受到了前所未有的震撼。美元的疲软及一些新兴市场的崛起都使各国开始考虑储备货币的其他选择。

加州大学伯克利分校政治经济学教授Barry Eichengreen在本文中先解释了现存国际金融体系中美元作为唯一主导储备货币的弊端。首先,新兴市场国家积累国际货币储备是逻辑上的必然。尤其是一些刚刚开放金融市场的国家,为应付多变的国际金融市场、增加本体经济的“防震”能力,增加国际货币储备是必然之路。这在一个美国经济占世界经济主体、世界其他国家对美元需求相对较小的国际金融体系中,并不构成太大的问题。但随着美国经济的相对下滑与新兴市场国家经济的不断壮大,美元的外流也越来越严重。美国国内过低的利率与轻易放贷,很容易造成金融资产泡沫,最终导致金融市场的震荡。这就是所谓的国际金融市场的不平衡问题。

今年3月,中国央行行长周小川倡导创造一种超主权国际储备货币,并力推国际货币基金组织(IMF)的SDR(特别提款权)。文章指出,由于分配机制和使用范围上的限制,以SDR作为国际储备货币还需要许多工作。周小川对SDR的推崇有可能更多是发出一个政治信号,即中国对美元主导地位的不满,或是暗示人民币作为另一种国际储备货币的可能性。

在各种储备货币的可选项中,文章作者认为,在短期内,欧元将赢得更大的市场份额,尤其是在欧洲地区。从长远来看,人民币的角色有可能也将得到拓展,尤其是在亚洲。但美元还将持续扮演世界最主要的国际储备货币的角色,虽然这一角色将有所削弱。一个以美元为主导的多元化的国际储备体系是正常的。类似于一战前以英镑为主、法郎和德国马克为辅的储备体系,这种新的金融体系的安排有利于避免国际金融市场的不平衡问题。

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《北约的日程表——迈向全球安全网》
Zbigniew Brzezinski, “An Agenda for NATO ¨C Toward a Global Security Web,” Foreign Affairs, September / October 2009
兹比格涅夫·布热津斯基在最新一期《外交》杂志中发表了一篇关于北约新角色的文章,给北约制定了一个新的“日程表”。

冷战结束以后,北约一度被认为失去了其存在的意义。今年4月北约成立60周年也是在低调中度过的。就连法国在脱离北约军事一体化体系40多年后重新加入一事,也未招来一致认可的声音。“然而法国在这一行动上是有远见的,”布热津斯基认为,“法国的行为强调了北约作为一个有着巨大国际潜力的区域组织的政治意义。”

在国际史上,北约曾经促成三大历史的转型——西方力量重心从欧洲转移到美国,二战后的冷战,及苏联解体、冷战结束。北约的下一步将是什么?它在过去的60年中有哪些经验和教训?北约新的秘书长在下一次北约峰会前的任务之一就是“发展一个新的战略概念,并在下一次峰会上提交实现这一战略概念的具体企划”。

这一新的概念将涉及解决四个根本挑战。第一,在北约进行了深度军事参与的阿富汗和巴基斯坦,如何能达成一个政治上令人能够接受的结果。第二,如何更新《北大西洋公约》第5条款中的“集体安全”的含义。第三,如何把俄罗斯纳入到一个与欧洲和北大西洋地区互利互惠的关系网中。第四,如何应付国际安全的新挑战。在这四个根本挑战中,前两者有关北约作为一个地区组织的可信度;后两者有关它的国际角色。

布热津斯基指出,北约的潜力并不主要在军事方面。虽然它是一个“集体安全”的军事联盟,但它的真正力量在于它集合了美国强大的军事与经济实力和欧洲国家在世界上的政治与经济重量。但过去几年,华盛顿在伊拉克问题上的单边主义及其极度的伊斯兰教恐惧症破坏了北约内部的团结。

除了拉拢俄罗斯,北约也应该向亚洲进展。布热津斯基建议北约与上海合作组织建立某种形式的联合理事会,并充分利用土耳其在北约与中亚地区的共同角色。把中国纳入到这一国际安全网中是北约行动的长期目标。

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《北京的私人股权投资基金改革》
Ken Dewoskin, “Beijing’s Private Equity Revolution,” Far Eastern Economic Review, September 2009
今年8月北京颁布的两项重要举措,将对中国的投资行业产生巨大的影响。一是国务院定义了新的合作伙伴形式;二是发改委起草的《股权投资基金管理办法》已经上报国务院,等待批准。具体实施细节还有待颁布,但这两项举措将有效规范化私人股权投资基金的运作。

私人股权投资基金即Private Equity(简称“PE”),从投资方式角度看,依国外相关研究机构的定义,是指通过私募形式对私有企业进行权益性投资。文章作者认为,私人股权投资基金的发展与规范化,将有助于中国解决长期以来的金融资源配置效率低的问题。

中国的金融资源过分向生产效率低的国有大中型企业倾斜;而作为中国生产力生力军的私有中小型企业却面临着融资难的困境,即所谓“涝的涝死,旱的旱死” 。国有企业即使没有需要,也会贷款并将这些资本投资于其他产业的银行、基金、零售业及工业财产。这就为国有企业增加了一个投资中介的角色。但国有企业缺乏专业的投资知识,并不是理想的投资中介。

私人股权投资基金的开放,可以使国有大中型企业以有限合伙人的身份利用私人股权投资基金的专业投资经验与人才进行投资。由于私募股权投资基金是以企业的成长潜力和效率作为投资选择原则,一次融资的平均规模和对企业的资格限制相对较低,它将大大有助于中小企业的融资。发展私人股权投资基金的好处在于,它即不威胁中国以国有大中型企业为基础的实体经济,又可以促进社会资源的优化配置,有“一石二鸟”之功。

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《恶魔的粪便——产油国能避免“资源诅咒”吗?》
Moisés Naím, “The Devil’s Excrement ¨C Can Oil-Rich Countries Avoid the Resource Curse?” Foreign Policy, September / October 2009
无论是天然气、铜还是钻石、石油,这些丰富的自然资源似乎并不能带来国家经济的发展,反而使这些国家更陷于贫困。“资源诅咒”虽然谬于常理,但除少数国家如挪威和美国例外以外,它基本上已经成为了一条金规玉律。但也正是这些少数例外国家向我们暗示了如何能够实现资源与富足的共存。挪威与美国所共有的民主、透明、有效的公共制度似乎就是使资源富裕国家避免受到“资源诅咒”的关键。

然而建立这些制度并非易事。石油早在上个世纪七十年代就被委内瑞拉前石油部长胡安·阿方索冠以“恶魔的粪便” 的恶名。“石油诅咒”就像一种自身免疫性疾病,它在攻击健康机体的同时,也会削弱肌体免疫系统抗击这种病毒的能力。换言之,石油资源的丰富不仅不会促进民主、透明、有效的公共制度的建立,反而会滋生腐败。其原因在于政府有了可支配的石油资源所产生的财富,便不再需要依赖公民赋税,因而对纳税人负责的动力也大大降低。

所有自然资源依赖型经济体都有一个共同的特性,即它们都有一个刺激进口、抑制除主要资源商品出口以外的其他一切出口的汇率。并非这些国家的领导人没有意识到多元化经济的重要性。事实上,所有产油国都曾对其他产业进行大量的投资,但这些投资很少成功,原因就在于它们的汇率抑制了农业、制造业与旅游业的发展。

此外,石油价格的浮动也有着毁灭性的影响。油价高导致投资与债务过剩;油价低则引发银行贷款危机,导致政府削减开支、降低福利,给穷人的生活雪上加霜。

那么,是否资源丰富的国家就走不出被诅咒的厄运了呢?也未必。智利与博茨瓦纳就是发展中国家在“资源诅咒”上的例外。这两个国家是如何避免“资源诅咒”的厄运的呢?这一题目还尚未有人研究过,但我们拭目以待。

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《在自然中寻求共同利益》
Vaclav Smil, “Finding Mutual Interests in Nature,” Far Eastern Economic Review, October 2009
《远东经济观察》最新一期文章《在自然中寻求共同利益》综述了中国水利工程的发展史以及中国与邻国在共用水资源方面所存在的矛盾与合作契机。

中国当属世界上水利工程规模最大、工程数量最多的国家。虽然水电工程与南水北调工程所产生的电能与水资源非常可观,但这些人造工程也因其对环境及社会的影响而引起了很大争议。许多工程不仅在中国国内,在一些邻国中也引起了不少忧虑。

文章首先列举了湄公河的例子。湄公河发源于中国青海省,流经中国、老挝、缅甸、泰国、柬埔寨和越南六个国家。湄公河在中国境内一段被称为澜沧江。我国云南省在澜沧江兴建八个梯级水电站的计划中,已经建成的有漫湾(1996年)、大朝山(2002年),正在修建的有小湾,准备修建的有景洪,正在规划的有糯扎渡。电站大坝将改变湄公河流域的生态环境与自然资源,尤其将影响湄公河下游流域渔业的产量,从而影响到渔民的生计,因此遭到下游流域国家的反对。

作者认为,水利工程有可能引发外交矛盾,但也可能成为合作的催化剂。另一条因水力资源丰富而受到瞩目的河流是布拉马普特拉河。布拉马普特拉河在中国境内又称雅鲁藏布江。它流经中国西藏、印度和孟加拉国。近些年来,已有多位国际国内的专家对如何利用雅鲁藏布江的水力资源提出了设想。虽然雅鲁藏布江“大拐弯”是当今世界上少有的具备建大水电站条件的地区,但在那里修建水坝也面临着诸多困难——地理位置偏远、自然条件恶劣、地处地震多发带,及将不可避免地给下游印度境内流域带来影响。印度政府一直关注中国政府的动向。相较于建坝,印度政府更加忧虑的是南水北调的西线工程。中印边界线的争议与气候变暖所造成的冰川融化使这个问题更加复杂化。这些都呼吁中印两国的有效协商与合作。

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《绿色世界就意味着一个更安全的世界吗?》
David J. Rothkopf, “Is Green World A Safer World?” Foreign Policy, September / October 2009
绿色世界就意味着一个更安全的世界吗?未必如此。走向绿色是历史的必然,可以帮助消除我们当今所面临的一些最严峻的挑战。但走向绿色的同时也会诞生有新的挑战。《外交政策》本期文章列举了绿色经济下可能产生的冲突和摩擦。

首先是以绿色为借口而进行的“绿色贸易战”。以美国众议院最近通过的一项有关气候变暖的法案为例,其内容规定对没有减排限额的国家征收“碳关税”。支持者宣称这将防止一些高排放的工厂将厂房转移到没有减排限制的国家。反对者指出“碳关税”是贸易保护的新面具;项庄舞剑,意在中国。

其次,石油大国们的财富和影响力虽然还会持续几十年,但它们已经走在了下坡路上。世界石油供给量早就到达了顶峰;我们今天的燃油量是不可持续的;石油能源被取代只是早晚的事情。石油收入的锐减必将给依赖石油资源的石油大国们带来灾难性的经济压力以及随之而来的社会与政治冲击。石油大国兴衰的必然曲线已经给地区不稳定埋下了祸根。

第三,核能作为一种效率极高的清洁能源已经在世界尤其是发展中国家掀起了一场复兴运动。除了对核废料的处理在环保方面的争议以外,核能技术被恐怖组织盗取并利用的可能性也增加了发展核能的风险。

第四,许多人预测,水作为一种稀缺资源在未来将成为“新的石油”。许多绿色能源将消耗大量的水资源,比如生物能源需要灌溉。对水资源的争夺很可能成为未来冲突与摩擦的根源之一。

第五,当人类真正完成向电动交通工具的转换之时,世界对锂电池的需求也将大大增加。而世界四分之三的锂资源都集中在南美两个历史上有着宿仇的国家——智利与玻利维亚。对锂出口市场的争夺有可能再次激化两国的矛盾。

总之,认识到以上这些潜在的危险并不是说就不应该走向绿色。文章只是提醒我们不要过于乐观,而要谨慎地迈向绿色能源。

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